The impact of sex hormone concentrations on decision-making in females and males

Human decision-making has been frequently studied and sex differences have been reported. Interestingly, previous results of hormone concentration on decision-making are somewhat inconsistent, regarding the impact of menstrual cycle phase in women or the influence of testosterone concentration on decision-making in women and men. However, the influence of the female sex hormone concentration (estradiol, progesterone) and the impact of oral contraceptive intake have rarely been examined and data regarding the effect of daytime variations of male testosterone are lacking. Moreover if personality factors such as sensation seeking, impulsivity, and anxiety influence decision-making, sex-specific effects, act as modulators is unclear. In the present study 71 women and 45 men were enrolled. All participants performed an evaluated decision-making task measuring risk-taking behavior on the basis of contingencies (Haegler et al., 2010), which can be carried out several times without a learning effect. Saliva samples were collected to obtain estradiol, progesterone, and testosterone levels. Additionally, all participants completed questionnaires measuring various personality factors. Data analysis revealed no sex differences in decision-making and no significant impact of testosterone concentration on behavioral performance in women or men. However, a significant negative correlation between progesterone concentration of women in the luteal phase and their performance in the risk-averse condition was obtained. Interestingly, a significant correlation between trait anxiety and decision-making occurred in females and males. Despite similar risky decision-making of women and men and no influence of testosterone concentration, menstrual cycle phase showed an effect on risk taking in women. In contrary to other studies, our findings provide rather subtle evidence for hormonal influences in decision-making, which may be primarily explained by task factors

Correlations of TAS-20 and OAS Scores with Facilitation and Inhibition scores.

<p><i>Note</i>. For TAS-20 scores, numbers in parentheses are partial correlations, controlling for depression, and positive and negative affect. NA = not applicable.</p><p>*<i>p</i> < .05,</p><p>**<i>p</i> < .001,</p><p>⁺<i>p</i> < .10,</p><p>^a targets were illness-related.</p><p>Correlations of TAS-20 and OAS Scores with Facilitation and Inhibition scores.</p

Presentation times of the priming task elements.

<p>¹Primes were verbal stimuli (positive, negative, neutral, or illness-related) or facial stimuli (angry, happy, or neutral); ²Targets were verbal stimuli (positive, negative, or illness-related) or facial stimuli (angry or happy); ³During the intertrial interval a fixation cross was presented; SOA = stimulus onset asynchrony.</p

Effects of alexithymia on automatic processing of illness-related information.

<p>(A) Estimated marginal means (ANCOVA) of alexithymia groups (high vs. medium vs. low) of facilitation scores under the priming-condition “negative verbal prime–illness related target”, controlling for positive and negative affect and depressive symptoms. (B) Estimated marginal means (ANCOVA) of alexithymia groups (high vs. medium vs. low) of inhibition scores under the priming-condition “positive verbal prime–illness related target”, controlling for positive and negative affect and depressive symptoms. <i>Note</i>. With regard to Fig 2(A), it has to be noted that error bars of marginal means overlapped between groups. This does not contradict the results of the statistical tests regarding group mean differences. Whereas error bars in Figs 2(A) and (B) are based on individual within-group estimates of variation, the pairwise statistical tests are based on a more reliable overall estimate of within-group variation, simultaneously using data from all three groups.</p

Means and Standard Deviations of Facilitation and Inhibition scores (in ms).

<p><i>Note</i>. Facilitation and inhibition scores were calculated by subtracting the means of the congruent conditions (e.g., positive prime–positive target) and the incongruent conditions (e.g., positive prime–negative target), respectively, from the means of the neutral conditions (e.g., neutral prime–positive target). In case of a facilitation score, this value is positive if the affective prime facilitated a faster processing of the congruent target compared to the neutral condition. In case of an inhibition score, this value is negative if the affective prime inhibited the processing of the incongruent target compared to the neutral condition. Numbers are bold if the value is in the expected direction. NA = not applicable.</p><p>Means and Standard Deviations of Facilitation and Inhibition scores (in ms).</p

Sex differences in event-related potentials and attentional biases to emotional facial stimuli

Attentional processes play an important role in the processing of emotional information. Previous research reported attentional biases during stimulus processing in anxiety and depression. However, sex differences in the processing of emotional stimuli and higher prevalence rates of anxiety disorders among women, compared to men, suggest that attentional biases may also differ between the two sexes. The present study used a modified version of the dot probe task with happy, angry, and neutral facial stimuli to investigate the time course of attentional biases in healthy volunteers. Moreover, associations of attentional biases with alexithymia were examined on the behavioral and physiological level. Event-related potentials were measured while 21 participants (11 women) performed the task, utilizing also for the first time a difference wave approach in the analysis to highlight emotion-specific aspects. Women showed overall enhanced probe P1 amplitudes compared to men, in particular after rewarding facial stimuli. Under the difference wave approach, probe P1 amplitudes appeared specifically enhanced with regard to congruently presented happy facial stimuli among women, compared to men. Both methods yielded enhanced probe P1 amplitudes after presentation of the emotional stimulus in the left compared to the right visual hemifield. Probe P1 amplitudes correlated negatively with self-reported alexithymia, most of these correlations were only observable in women. Our results suggest that women orient their attention to a greater extent to facial stimuli than men and corroborate that alexithymia is a correlate of reduced emotional reactivity on a neuronal level. We recommend using a difference wave approach when addressing attentional processes of orientation and disengagement also in future studies

Sex differences in event-related potentials and attentional biases to emotional facial stimuli

Attentional processes play an important role in the processing of emotional information. Previous research reported attentional biases during stimulus processing in anxiety and depression. However, sex differences in the processing of emotional stimuli and higher prevalence rates of anxiety disorders among women, compared to men, suggest that attentional biases may also differ between the two sexes. The present study used a modified version of the dot probe task with happy, angry, and neutral facial stimuli to investigate the time course of attentional biases in healthy volunteers. Moreover, associations of attentional biases with alexithymia were examined on the behavioral and physiological level. Event-related potentials were measured while 21 participants (11 women) performed the task, utilizing also for the first time a difference wave approach in the analysis to highlight emotion-specific aspects. Women showed overall enhanced probe P1 amplitudes compared to men, in particular after rewarding facial stimuli. Using the difference wave approach, probe P1 amplitudes appeared specifically enhanced with regard to congruently presented happy facial stimuli among women, compared to men. Both methods yielded enhanced probe P1 amplitudes after presentation of the emotional stimulus in the left compared to the right visual hemifield. Probe P1 amplitudes correlated negatively with self-reported alexithymia, most of these correlations were only observable in women. Our results suggest that women orient their attention to a greater extent to facial stimuli than men and corroborate that alexithymia is a correlate of reduced emotional reactivity on a neuronal level. We recommend using a difference wave approach when addressing attentional processes of orientation and disengagement also in future studies