Brahman Genetics Negatively Impact Protein Degradation and Tenderness of Longissimus Lumborum Steaks, but do Not Influence Collagen Cross-Linking

Beef tenderness is an important factor contributing to consumer eating satisfaction of beef products. Tenderness is dependent on several factors including: breed-type, postmortem age time, myofibrillar muscle protein degradation, and collagen content. During the past 30 years, numerous studies have indicated steaks from cattle with a greater percentage of Brahman genetics are tougher than steaks from Bos taurus cattle. The cause of tougher steaks is commonly attributed to Brahman cattle having a greater calpastatin activity which inhibits calpains, the enzymes responsible for myofibrillar protein degradation during the postmortem aging process. Some researchers have reported calpastatin activity was poorly correlated to tenderness of steaks from Brahman cattle. Others have reported sensory panelists indicated steaks from cattle with increasing percentages of Brahman genetics have an increase in the amount of connective tissue or collagen. Additionally, researchers have reported an increase in expression of genes that play a role in cross-linking of collagen which decreases collagen solubility. Due to these findings, we hypothesized steaks from cattle with greater Brahman genetics have more collagen cross-links and therefore a less soluble collagen fraction. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of Brahman genetics on protein degradation, collagen cross-linking, and meat tenderness of strip loin steaks

Effects of Conditioning Temperature on Pellet Quality of Nursery Pig Diets

The objective of this experiment was to determine the effect of conditioning temperature on pellet durability index (PDI) and pellet hardness. A phase 1 swine nursery diet was formulated to contain 25% spray-dried whey. The diet was manufactured and pelleted at the Kansas State University O.H. Kruse Feed Technology and Innovation Center, Manhattan, KS. The treatments consisted of three different conditioning temperatures: 130, 145, and 160°F. Diets were steam conditioned (10 in width × 55 in length Wenger twin staff pre-conditioner, Model 150) for approximately 30 sec on a 1-ton 30-horsepower pellet mill (1012-2 HD Master Model, California Pellet Mill) with a 3/16 in × 1 1/4 in pellet die (L:D 6.7). Treatments were pelleted at 3 separate time points to provide 3 replicates per treatment. Samples were collected directly after discharging from the pellet mill and cooled in an experimental counterflow cooler. Samples were analyzed for PDI using the Holmen NHP 100 (TekPro Ltd, Norfolk, UK) in duplicate for each replicate. Pellet hardness was determined by evaluating the peak amount of force applied before the first signs of fracture. Pellets were crushed perpendicular to their longitudinal axis using a texture analyzer. A total of 30 pellets of similar length were selected at random from each replication to be tested and the force needed to crush each pellet was averaged within replication. Although conditioning temperature was increased in a linear fashion, a quadratic increase (P \u3c 0.002) in hot pellet temperature was observed. Increasing conditioning temperature resulted in increased (linear, P \u3c 0.045) PDI and pellet hardness. There was a tendency for a low correlation (P \u3c 0.076, r = 0.618, r2 = 0.382) between pellet hardness and PDI. Overall, increasing the conditioning temperature increased both pellet hardness and pellet durability; however, these two responses were not strongly correlated. Future research and more data need to be generated to determine the relationship between PDI and pellet hardness at varying levels of pellet quality to determine what factors influence this relationship

Effects of wheat source and particle size in meal and pelleted diets on finishing pig growth performance, carcass characteristics, and nutrient digestibility

Citation: De Jong, J. A., Derouchey, J. M., Tokach, M. D., Dritz, S. S., Goodband, R. D., Paulk, C. B., . . . Stark, C. R. (2016). Effects of wheat source and particle size in meal and pelleted diets on finishing pig growth performance, carcass characteristics, and nutrient digestibility. Journal of Animal Science, 94(8), 3303-3311. doi:10.2527/jas2016-0370Two experiments were conducted to test the effects of wheat source and particle size in meal and pelleted diets on finishing pig performance, carcass characteristics, and diet digestibility. In Exp. 1, pigs (PIC 327 × 1050; n = 288; initially 43.8 kg BW) were balanced by initial BW and randomly allotted to 1 of 3 treatments with 8 pigs per pen (4 barrows and 4 gilts) and 12 pens per treatment. The 3 dietary treatments were hard red winter wheat ground with a hammer mill to 728, 579, or 326 ?m, respectively. From d 0 to 40, decreasing wheat particle size decreased (linear, P < 0.033) ADFI but improved (quadratic, P < 0.014) G:F. From d 40 to 83, decreasing wheat particle size increased (quadratic, P < 0.018) ADG and improved (linear, P < 0.002) G:F. Overall from d 0 to 83, reducing wheat particle size improved (linear, P < 0.002) G:F. In Exp. 2, pigs (PIC 327 × 1050; n = 576; initially 43.4 ± 0.02 kg BW) were used to determine the effects of wheat source and particle size of pelleted diets on finishing pig growth performance and carcass characteristics. Pigs were randomly allotted to pens, and pens of pigs were balanced by initial BW and randomly allotted to 1 of 6 dietary treatments with 12 replications per treatment and 8 pigs/pen. The experimental diets used the same wheat–soybean meal formulation, with the 6 treatments using hard red winter or soft white winter wheat that were processed to 245, 465, and 693 ?m and 258, 402, and 710 ?m, respectively. All diets were pelleted. Overall, feeding hard red winter wheat increased (P < 0.05) ADG and ADFI when compared with soft white winter wheat. There was a tendency (P < 0.10) for a quadratic particle size × wheat source interaction for ADG, ADFI, and both DM and GE digestibility, as they were decreased for pigs fed 465-?m hard red winter wheat and were greatest for pigs fed 402-?m soft white winter wheat. There were no main or interactive effects of particle size or wheat source on carcass characteristics. In summary, fine grinding hard red winter wheat fed in meal form improved G:F and nutrient digestibility, whereas reducing particle size of wheat from approximately 700 to 250 ?m in pelleted diets did not influence growth or carcass traits. Finally, feeding hard red winter wheat improved ADG and ADFI compared with feeding soft white winter wheat. © 2016 American Society of Animal Science. All rights reserved

Cleaning Reduces Mycotoxin Contamination in Corn

A single load of corn naturally contaminated with aflatoxin (1,074 ppb), fumonisin (8.3 ppm), and ochratoxin A (206 ppb) was procured from central Oklahoma to evaluate the role of cleaning to remove mycotoxin contamination in corn. Corn was divided into twenty 333-lb lots, which were then cleaned using an EBM Gentle Roll corn cleaner to remove overs (material \u3e 1/2 inches) and unders (material \u3c 3/16 inches). The resultant 4 treatments included: 1) uncleaned corn; 2) overs from cleaned corn; 3) cleaned corn; and 4) unders from cleaned corn. Samples of each fraction were analyzed for mycotoxin content using multiclass liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Cleaning generated approximately 6% screenings (unders + overs), and reduced (P \u3c 0.05) aflatoxin by an average of 26%. Cleaning also reduced (P \u3c 0.05) fumonisin by 45%, but did not impact ochratoxin A. Unders had nearly 4 times the aflatoxin and 7.5 times the fumonisin as the uncleaned corn. In conclusion, cleaning corn may substantially reduce mycotoxin contamination, but the resultant screenings should be used cautiously

Effect of Mill Type and Particle Size Variation on Growth Performance and Carcass Characteristics of Finishing Pigs

The objective of this experiment was to determine the effects of mill type used to grind corn and its particle size variation on diet flowability and subsequent finishing pig growth performance and carcass characteristics. A total of 200 pigs (DNA Line 241 × 600; initially 121.9 lb) were used in a 75-d growth trial. Pigs were randomly assigned to pens with either 5 barrows or 5 gilts per pen. Pens were then randomly allotted to 1 of 4 treatments balanced by weight and gender with 10 pens per treatment. Treatments were arranged as a 2 × 2 factorial with 2 mill types (3-high roller mill; RMS, Model 924 or a hammermill; Bliss, model 22115) and 2 particle size variations (standard vs. blended). Increasing corn particle size variation was accomplished by blending 30% 400 μm corn, 40% 600 μm corn, and 30% 800 μm corn. Standard treatments were accomplished by grinding corn to an average of 600 μm with either mill. On d 75, pigs were transported to a commercial packing plant for processing and determination of carcass characteristics. The average analyzed complete diet mean particle sizes and standard deviations were 497, 540, 503, and 520 μm and 2.70, 2.75. 3.35, and 3.35 for the roller mill standard, roller mill blended, hammermill standard, and hammermill blended treatments, respectively. Diet flowability was calculated using angle of repose (AoR), percent compressibility, and critical orifice diameter (COD) measurements to determine the composite flow index (CFI). The AOR were 34.2, 33.0, 35.4, and 36.2º; COD were 32.0, 31.3, 30.0, and 33.0 mm; compressibilitys were 18.7, 18.4, 17.0, and 15.7%; and CFI were 52.9, 55.4, 53.9, and 53.2 for the roller mill standard, roller mill blended, hammermill standard, and hammermill blended treatments, respectively. There were no interactions or main effects of mill type on growth performance or carcass characteristics. However, pigs fed the blended diets had marginally significant decreased (P \u3c 0.083) average daily gain (ADG) compared to those fed the standard diets. No differences were observed in total feed cost or cost per lb of gain between treatments. Pigs fed blended diets also had marginally decreased (P \u3c 0.059) gain value and income over feed costs (IOFC) compared to those fed diets that were not blended. In conclusion, mill type used to grind corn and increasing particle size variation did not impact flowability metrics of complete diets. Mill type used to grind corn did not influence performance of finishing pigs, while increasing particle size variation by blending various particle sizes of corn led to a marginal reduction in ADG, gain value, and IOFC

Evaluation of Pellet Binders on Pellet Durability Index of a High-Fat Swine Diet

The objective of this study was to evaluate the addition of different pellet binders on pellet quality of a grower swine diet by measuring pellet durability index (PDI). Dietary treatments consisted of a corn-soybean meal-based control diet with 20% dried distillers grains with solubles and 4% choice white grease, the control diet with 0.6% lignosulfonate (AMERI-BOND 2X; LignoTech USA Inc.; Rothschild, WI), or the control diet with increasing levels of a pasta by-product (2.5, 5.0, or 10.0%; International Ingredients, St. Louis, MO). Pellet binders were added to the control diet in the place of corn to create dietary treatments. Each treatment was pelleted in 333 lb batches at 3 separate periods to provide 3 replications per treatment. Pelleting run was considered the experimental unit and time of processing served as the blocking factor. Order of pelleting dietary treatments was randomized within each time period. Corn was ground to approximately 600 μm. Diets were pelleted via steam conditioning (10- × 55-in. Wenger twin staff conditioner, Model 150) and using a 30-horsepower pellet mill (1012-2 HD Master Model, California Pellet Mill) with a 5/32- × 1-in. pellet die. During each processing run, pellet samples were collected throughout the run and immediately placed in an experimental counter-flow cooler for 10 minutes. After cooling, samples were analyzed for pellet durability index using the Holmen NHP 100 (TekPro Ltd, Norfolk, UK) for 30 seconds. There was no evidence (P \u3e 0.172) of difference for the effect of treatment on conditioner temperature, hot pellet temperature, or production rate. The average conditioner temperature, hot pellet temperature, and production rate were 185.9°F, 188.2°F, and 1,364 lb/h, respectively. The diet containing lignosulfate improved (P \u3c 0.001) PDI compared to the control diet. Increasing pasta by-product from 2.5 to 10% increased the PDI (P \u3c 0.01) compared with the control diet. Diets containing 2.5% pasta by-product had lower PDI compared to those with lignosulfonate, diets with 5% pasta by-product and lignosulfonate had similar PDI, and diets containing 10% pasta by-product had increased PDI compared to the lignosulfonate treatment. In conclusion, adding pellet binders to the high fat finisher diets improved PDI by 7.4 to 10.7%. Adding 5% pasta by-product improved PDI similar to that of lignosulfonate and adding 10% pasta by-product further improved PDI compared to lignosulfonate

Multi-Modal Neuroimaging Analysis and Visualization Tool (MMVT)

Sophisticated visualization tools are essential for the presentation and exploration of human neuroimaging data. While two-dimensional orthogonal views of neuroimaging data are conventionally used to display activity and statistical analysis, three-dimensional (3D) representation is useful for showing the spatial distribution of a functional network, as well as its temporal evolution. For these purposes, there is currently no open-source, 3D neuroimaging tool that can simultaneously visualize desired combinations of MRI, CT, EEG, MEG, fMRI, PET, and intracranial EEG (i.e., ECoG, depth electrodes, and DBS). Here we present the Multi-Modal Visualization Tool (MMVT), which is designed for researchers to interact with their neuroimaging functional and anatomical data through simultaneous visualization of these existing imaging modalities. MMVT contains two separate modules: The first is an add-on to the open-source, 3D-rendering program Blender. It is an interactive graphical interface that enables users to simultaneously visualize multi-modality functional and statistical data on cortical and subcortical surfaces as well as MEEG sensors and intracranial electrodes. This tool also enables highly accurate 3D visualization of neuroanatomy, including the location of invasive electrodes relative to brain structures. The second module includes complete stand-alone pre-processing pipelines, from raw data to statistical maps. Each of the modules and module features can be integrated, separate from the tool, into existing data pipelines. This gives the tool a distinct advantage in both clinical and research domains as each has highly specialized visual and processing needs. MMVT leverages open-source software to build a comprehensive tool for data visualization and exploration.Comment: 29 pages, 10 figure

Influence of dietary fat source and feeding duration on finishing pig growth performance, carcass composition, and fat quality

Citation: Stephenson, E. W., Vaughn, M. A., Burnett, D. D., Paulk, C. B., Tokach, M. D., Dritz, S. S., . . . Gonzalez, J. M. (2016). Influence of dietary fat source and feeding duration on finishing pig growth performance, carcass composition, and fat quality. Journal of Animal Science, 94(7), 2851-2866. doi:10.2527/jas2015-9521A total of 160 finishing pigs (PIC 327 × 1050; initially 45.6 kg) were used in an 84-d experiment to evaluate the effects of dietary fat source and feeding duration on growth performance, carcass characteristics, and carcass fat quality. There were 2 pigs per pen with 8 pens per treatment. The 10 dietary treatments were a corn–soybean meal control diet with no added fat and a 3 × 3 factorial with main effects of fat source (4% tallow, 4% soybean oil, or a blend of 2% tallow and 2% soybean oil) and feeding duration (d 0 to 42, 42 to 84, or 0 to 84). The control corn– soybean meal diet was fed in place of added fat diets when needed for duration treatment purposes. On d 0, 1 pig was identified in each pen and fat biopsy samples of the back, belly, and jowl were collected on d 0, 41, and 81 for fatty acid analysis. At the conclusion of the study, all pigs were harvested, carcass characteristics were determined, and back, belly, and jowl fat samples were collected for analysis. Overall (d 0 to 84), there were no differences among pigs fed the different fat sources for growth and carcass characteristics; however, pigs fed diets with added fat for the entire study had improved (P = 0.036) G:F compared with pigs fed the control diet without added fat. Pigs fed supplemental fat throughout the entire study also had improved (P < 0.05) ADG and G:F as well as heavier d-84 BW (P = 0.006) compared with pigs fed additional fat during only 1 period. Adding fat for the entire study increased (P = 0.032) backfat and tended to reduce (P = 0.079) the fat free lean index compared with pigs fed the control diet without added fat. Added fat also increased (P < 0.05) the iodine value (IV) when compared with pigs fed the control diet. Increasing the feeding duration of soybean oil lowered MUFA and increased PUFA concentrations for all fat depots, whereas these values remained relatively unchanged by the addition of tallow (duration × fat source interactions, P < 0.05). Our study failed to show any feeding period × fat source interactions (P < 0.05) in fatty acid composition or IV for jowl fat, whereas this interaction occurred for belly fat and backfat, which would indicate a longer turnover rate for jowl fat. In conclusion, feeding additional fat improved ADG and G:F; however, feeding soybean oil for an increased duration, either alone or in combination with tallow, negatively affected the fatty acid composition and IV of different fat depots. © 2016 American Society of Animal Science. All rights reserved

Effect of growth-promoting technologies on Longissimus lumborum muscle fiber morphometrics, collagen solubility, and cooked meat tenderness

Citation: Ebarb, S. M., Drouillard, J. S., Maddock-Carlin, K. R., Phelps, K. J., Vaughn, M. A., Burnett, D. D., . . . Gonzalez, J. M. (2016). Effect of growth-promoting technologies on Longissimus lumborum muscle fiber morphometrics, collagen solubility, and cooked meat tenderness. Journal of Animal Science, 94(2), 869-881. doi:10.2527/jas2015-9888The objective of the study was to examine the effect of growth-promoting technologies (GP) on Longissimus lumborum steak tenderness, muscle fiber cross-sectional area (CSA), and collagen solubility. Crossbred feedlot heifers (n = 33; initial BW 464 +/- 6 kg) were blocked by BW and assigned to 1 of 3 treatments: no GP (CON; n = 11); implant, no zilpaterol hydrochloride (IMP; n = 11); implant and zilpaterol hydrochloride (COMBO; n = 11). Heifers assigned to receive an implant were administered Component TE-200 on d 0 of the study, and the COMBO group received 8.3 mg/kg DM of zilpaterol hydrochloride for the final 21 d of feeding with a 3 d withdrawal period. Following harvest, strip loins were collected and fabricated into 4 roasts and aged for 3, 14, 21, or 35 d postmortem. Fiber type was determined by immunohistochemistry. After aging, objective tenderness and collagen solubility were measured. There was a treatment x day of aging (DOA) interaction for Warner-Bratzler shear force (WBSF; P 0.31). Soluble collagen amount tended to be affected (P = 0.06) by a treatment x DOA interaction which was due to COMBO muscle having more soluble collagen than the other 2 treatments on d 21 of aging (P < 0.02). Correlation analysis indicated that type I, IIA, and IIX fiber CSA are positively correlated with WBSF at d 3 and 14 of aging (P < 0.01), but only type IIX fibers are correlated at d 21 and 35 of aging (P < 0.03). At these time periods, total and insoluble collagen became positively correlated with WBSF (P < 0.01). This would indicate that relationship between muscle fiber CSA and WBSF decreases during postmortem aging, while the association between WBSF and collagen characteristics strengthens. The use of GP negatively impacted meat tenderness primarily through increased muscle fiber CSA and not through altering collagen solubility

Moisture Content Throughout the Pelleting Process and Subsequent Effects on Pellet Quality

This experiment was designed to evaluate the effects of steam addition to the condi­tioner on moisture content throughout the pelleting process and subsequent effects on pellet quality. Treatments consisted of diets pelleted with no steam and steam added to achieve conditioning temperatures of 145 and 190°F. Conditioner retention time was set at 30 s and diets were pelleted with a ¼ × 2 ½ inch pellet die. Pellet samples were collected and immediately placed in an experimental counterflow cooler for 15 min. All treatments were replicated at 3 separate time points to provide 3 replicates per treatment. Mash, conditioned mash, hot pellets, and cooled pellet samples were collected for moisture content analysis, and cooled pellets for pellet durability index (PDI). Data were analyzed with pelleting run as the experimental unit and time period as the blocking factor. Moisture samples were analyzed as a 3 × 4 factorial of steam-conditioning and sample location. There was a steam-conditioning × sample interaction (P \u3c 0.01) for moisture. Moisture in mash samples was similar for all treatments. For the no steam treatment, there was no difference in moisture content between the mash, conditioned mash, and hot pellets; however, moisture decreased in cooled pellets. For the 145°F treatment, there was an increase in moisture from mash to conditioned mash, followed by a decrease in both hot pellets and cooled pellets. For the 190°F treatment, moisture increased from mash to conditioned mash, and decreased in hot pellets and cooled pellets. Increasing conditioning temperature from no steam to 190°F increased (P \u3c 0.01) PDI from 3.3, 59.1, to 91.1%, respectively. In conclusion, increasing feed temperature from 97.2 to 190°F via steam addition increased the conditioned mash moisture content by 4.2%, resulting in improved pellet quality