After Decades of Suburban Deer Research and Management in the Eastern United States: Where Do We Go From Here?

State wildlife agencies have regulatory authority and oversight over deer (Cervidae) management in the United States. However, increased urban sprawl and overabundant deer populations have created increased human–deer conflicts. Because of the growing controversy surrounding the use of traditional management practices such as regulated hunting in suburban areas in the eastern United States, managers are now using specialized tools and management approaches to reduce deer conflicts in urban areas. However, this has created new challenges as they try to meet the desires of diverse stakeholder groups. Although deer management programs in urban areas differ somewhat in every state, effective management options remain limited. Essentially the same management tools that were used for 3 decades have not changed, even with substantial investments in deer research. Despite public support for deer fertility control, it is still largely experimental and expensive. Immunocontraceptive vaccines are seldom used because of the cost and difficulty of retreating free-ranging deer. Surgical sterilization of deer has shown promise, but the scale of application remains limited by cost and the number of deer that need to be handled. Lethal deer removal remains the only method that has consistently reduced deer numbers in an acceptable time frame at multiple scales. Even in areas where urban deer numbers have been substantially reduced using lethal methods, the resulting effects on deer populations and human–deer conflicts have been poorly documented. In highly fragmented, developed landscapes, removing enough deer to demonstrate impact reduction has been a difficult and expensive process. It usually takes multiple approaches across several years to achieve desired results. Thus, the lack of long-term planning and sufficient budgets needed to sustain management efforts may impede overall program success and sustainability. Herein, I review the lessons learned from multiple deer research and management efforts from suburban areas in the eastern United States and highlight potential directions for future urban deer management programs

Developing a Standard Protocol for Assessing Suburban Deer Impacts to Vegetation

Over the past 30 years, populations of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) have increased dramatically in suburban communities, causing significant economic and ecological impacts. Homeowners have observed such deer population explosions and must cope with the problems of living in close proximity to deer with few reliable solutions. By applying knowledge of deer biology, behavior, and habitat requirements, this assessment protocol provides a scale to estimate the severity of deer damage, and the potential success of control measures. It will prove valuable by achieving a greater understanding of suburban deer management through a methodical and standardized analysis of impact indicators. Furthermore, by instituting periodic assessments, reduction in plant damage can be optimized, leading to long-term coordination of effective solutions

Relative Effectiveness of Repellents for Preventing Deer Damage to Japanese Yews

Homeowners whose landscape plants are repeatedly browsed by white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) are interested in repellent products that are effective and long-lasting. New products come to market with limited experimental testing. We conducted a 10-week trial from Feb. through Apr. 1999 to test the duration and efficacy of six commercial deer repellents [Deer-Away Big Game Repellent (BGR) mix, BGR spray, Deer-Off, Deer Stopper II, Repellex, Tree Guard] and two experimental deer repellents (CU-A and CU-B) relative to each other and to untreated plants. Treated and control balled japanese yew (Taxus cuspidata) shrubs were placed at each of 10 homeowner sites with known white-tailed deer damage near Ithaca, NY. Yews are frequently eaten by deer during winter and provide a good bioassay for testing repellents, especially during the winter months. We checked shrubs once weekly and took photographs of damaged yews to measure the amount of deer browsing. We calculated the surface area of shrubs in each photograph by using digital analysis software. To determine significant differences over time, we applied statistical analysis using analysis of variance. Deer repellents that provided the most consistent protection were BGR spray, BGR mix, Deer-Off, and Deer Stopper II. The japanese pachysandra (Pachysandra terminalis) extracts in experimental repellents CU-A and CU-B were not effective. The performance of other commercial repellents varied considerably among sites, and these products were unreliable

Trico: A Novel Repellent for Preventing Deer Damage to Ornamental Shrubs

Homeowners whose landscape plants are repeatedly browsed by white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus; deer) desire repellent products that are effective and long-lasting. We conducted a 12-week trial from January 6 through April 5, 2021 to test the duration and efficacy of a novel deer repellent (Trico®) relative to Plantskydd®, a commonly used deer repellent, and untreated plants. We placed treated and control Japanese yew shrubs (Taxus media ‘Hicksii’) at 4 homeowner sites (Birch Hills Drive, Fairview Crescent, Pinegrove Ave., and St. Paul Blvd.) near Rochester, New York, USA, where we detected deer presence. Yews are frequently eaten by deer during winter and provide a good bioassay for testing repellents. To gauge the efficacy of the repellents, we photographed the yews and scored the level of deer browsing. We used ordinal logistic regression to determine the change in efficacy over time. Trico deer repellent reduced deer damage to yews (chi-square = 97.273, P \u3c 0.0001). Damage to yews treated with Plantskydd did not differ from control plants (chi-square = 0.24, P = 0.621) after 12 weeks. The performance of deer repellents varied considerably among sites (chi-square = 109.460, P \u3c 0.0001). Where there was intense deer browsing pressure (Pinegrove Ave. site), both repellents failed to protect the yews. However, at 3 of 4 sites, the Trico repellent effectively protected yews from deer browsing during winter through spring green-up in April. We found Trico to be an effective, long-lasting repellent for protecting ornamental shrubs from deer browsing during winter

Developing Training Standards for Wildlife Control Operators

Wildlife have always threatened peoples’ comfort, safety, crops, domestic animals, and other property. Historically, wildlife and predator control were largely regulated by fur trapping and hunting laws, especially if an individual was protecting his or her property. Current laws that regulate problem wildlife are rooted in environmental conservation law. Enforcement of these regulations and laws regarding the capture and disposition of wildlife are conducted by game wardens or environmental conservation officers, whose primary mission is to enforce hunting and trapping laws. Under the Public Trust Doctrine, stewardship of wildlife is a government responsibility. State wildlife agencies have insufficient staff, however, to respond to the increase in human-wildlife conflicts created by rapid urbanization. Consequently, the profession of Wildlife Control Operators (WCOs) has emerged as a viable industry to manage negative wildlife interactions and conflicts. Thus, consistent training standards are needed for WCOs so that both wildlife and consumers are protected under Public Trust responsibilities. The National Wildlife Control Training Program (NWCTP) was created to provide a uniform standard for demonstrating core competency and understanding of integrated wildlife damage management (IWDM) principles

The National Wildlife Control Training Program: an evolution in wildlife damage management education for industry professionals

Managing wildlife and reducing damage in rural areas has traditionally been achieved by hunting and trapping problem species or by preventing animals from accessing crops and entering buildings. With urban sprawl, specialized tools and management approaches often are needed to reduce wildlife conflicts in developed landscapes. To address these issues, the private wildlife control industry has grown considerably during the past 2 decades. State wildlife agencies have regulatory authority and oversight of this industry, and there is an increasing trend toward licensing or certification of commercial wildlife control operators (WCOs). Regulations differ in every state, however, and no consistent standard for training WCOs exists. We developed the National Wildlife Control Training Program (NWCTP) to provide a uniform standard for demonstrating core competency and understanding of integrated wildlife damage management (IWDM) principles. The NWCTP includes modules on basic principles of IWDM, physical safety, wildlife diseases, site inspection, general control methods, trapping, exclusion, toxicants, animal handling, euthanasia, legal, and ethical issues, and professionalism. The NWCTP was designed to be easily adapted for use in any state or province, and we encourage wildlife agencies that lack training materials to adopt the NWCTP

Evaluation of the Yard Gard Ultrasonic Yard Protector for Repelling White-Tailed Deer

Ultrasonic devices are marketed for pest control because some manufacturers believe they possess properties aversive to animals. However, there is little evidence that ultrasound is more aversive to animals than is audible sound. In this study, we examined the efficacy of the Yard Gard ultrasonic device for deterring deer (Odocoileus virginianus) from feeding on apples. Four deer feeding stations were established at private residential properties with a history of deer damage to ornamental plants, so that control (A1 and B1) and experimental (A2 and B2) stations existed at each site. Apples were placed at each feeding station and restocked daily from mid-February to mid-March 1995. Yard Gard devices were set up at one station at each site, and we monitored daily deer activity by counting: (1) apples remaining, (2) deer tracks, and (3) deer fecal pellet groups at all feeding stations. Of the 360 total apples offered at site A while the devices were on, 175.0 (97.2%) and 179.5 (99.7%) apples were consumed at control (A1) and experimental (A2) stations, respectively. Of the 400 total apples offered at site B while the devices were on, 188 (94.0%) and 196.5 (98.3%) apples were consumed at control (B1) and experimental (B2) stations, respectively. Apple consumption at feeding stations proved to be the only quantitative data which provided a consistent measure of deer activity. Behavioral observations made at each site revealed that several deer visited the control and experimental feeding stations while Yard Gard devices were on. Apparently, the deer were alerted by the ultrasonic emissions but were not deterred from consuming apples. In conclusion, this study produced no evidence that the Yard Gard ultrasonic device protected the area from deer activity, or preferred foods from deer damage

External Characteristics of Houses Prone to Woodpecker Damage

Woodpecker (Picidae spp.) damage to houses and buildings is a widespread and locally severe problem, yet the probability and type of damage has never been quantified and related to home characteristics. Woodpeckers excavate holes in homes for a several reasons, mainly for building nest and roost cavities, drumming, and foraging for insects. We examined the external characteristics of houses that were contributing factors in attracting woodpeckers to bore holes in house siding and trim. From March 2001 through April 2002, we surveyed 1,185 houses in the town of Ithaca, Tompkins County, New York. Of the houses visited, 33% had woodpecker problems consisting of either property damage or noise disturbance. The probability of woodpecker-inflicted damage on a house was strongly dependent on siding type. Grooved plywood siding was more likely to be damaged than tongue-and-groove, board-and-batten, clapboard, and nonwood siding types. Probability of damage also increased as the tree density in the yard increased. Interactions occurred between sealant and yard type, and stained houses suffered greater probabilities of woodpecker damage in all wooded yards

A Techniques Manual And Video For The Management Of Problem Urban Canada Geese

Social and management problems associated with urban Canada geese (Branta canadensis) are increasing in area, scope and magnitude. Although there are many articles on the management of urban Canada geese, none provide enough information for a reader to understand the impact geese have on different people, the ecology of the urban goose, evaluate the effectiveness of potential control options, choose appropriate management techniques, and then implement the chosen techniques. The authors present a manual and video, which in combination, they believe are not deficient in any of these areas. The video is intended to increase the awareness and knowledge of human/goose conflicts in urban and suburban environments. The manual covers the biology of Canada geese relevant to problem management in an urban setting and a comprehensive list of management techniques. Detailed instructions for implementation, permit requirements, sources of equipment and supplies, and a discussion of advantages, disadvantages, and characteristics, are included for each technique. To assist in choosing and locating appropriate techniques, quick reference summary tables are included

Integrating Lethal and Nonlethal Approaches for Management of Suburban Deer

Evaluations of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) population management in suburban landscapes has included debate over lethal control (e.g., sharp-shooting and hunting). These management techniques are often stymied by political impediments, safety concerns, and public attitudes. We are implementing the novel use of surgical sterilization in combination with hunting to mitigate deer-related impacts on Cornell University lands near Ithaca, New York. The project lands are composed of 2 zones: a suburban core campus area (446 ha) and adjacent outlying areas that contain agricultural fields and natural areas where deer hunting is permitted (582 ha). Surgical sterilization will be the primary technique used to reduce deer abundance and associated impacts in the core campus zone. Population reduction in the hunting zone will focus on increased harvest of female deer. During 2007 to 2009, project staff sterilized 58 female deer; 39 adult does were marked with radio transmitters to monitor movement and survival. Ten additional control deer have been captured and radio-collared for a comparison of fawning rates and survival. Hunters harvested 69 deer in the first hunting season (Fall 2008). In spring 2009, infrared-triggered cameras (IRCs) were used to estimate deer abundance in the sterilization zone, which resulted in a density of 21 deer/km2 (56 deer per square mile). In the hunting zone, deer populations will be monitored using a deer sighting log and by data collected at a mandatory deer check station. In both zones, ongoing deer browse and deer-vehicle accident (OVA) studies will ascertain changes in deer impacts throughout the study. Our goal is to determine if deer fertility control integrated with a controlled hunting program on adjacent lands can maximize the efficiency of both techniques. If this integrated management program is successful, it may have additional applications in other communities in New York State and the Northeast