The psychology of errors

One of the lasting contributions to psychology by Sigmund Freud and Jean Piaget has been their focus on human errors as keys to the workings of the mind. Freud dedicated two of his first lectures of A general introduction to psychoanalysis (1935) to "The Psychology of Errors". He considered slips of the tongue, misreading and the forgetting of resolutions as related to unconscious mental processes. Hence the expression "a Freudian slip". Similarly Piaget did not follow the developers of intelligence tests who focused on those tasks which most children could solve at progressive ages, but turned his attention instead to those tasks which most children at any given age invariably failed to solve. He based his theory of stages in children's intellectual development on their errors in dealing with problems that required a level of thinking beyond their particular level of development (see e.g. Piaget, 1954).peer-reviewe

Preparing teachers for diversity

This paper reports the insights into the process of preparing teachers for responding to pupil diversity, based on the evaluation of the process of a three-year (2004-07) Comenius 2.1 project among teacher educators from seven EU countries. The paper is contextualized within the author’s move towards a social constructivist approach to education. It then describes the evaluation of the piloting of the DTMp project (Differentiated Teaching Module, primary) materials with groups of pre- and ins-service teachers in seven different countries in online and face-to-face courses in each of the seven partner institutions. A qualitative analysis of post-course evaluation data, collected from course participants and tutors, highlighted the following key processes for teacher educators: (1) Develop own openness todiversity; (2) Focus on the learner; (3) Build a safe, inclusive learning community; (4) Focus on learner reflection; (5) Focus on learner reflectionin- action; (6) Challenge assumptions; and (7) Use social interactive rather than individual learning.peer-reviewe

Recent developments in inclusive education in Malta

This paper aims at presenting an account of recent developments in inclusive education policy, discourse and practice in Malta. The inclusion initiative is placed within the opposite context of competitive and streaming practices prevalent in the Maltese education system. A brief account is given of how inclusive policy and practice have been influenced by the following: United Nations policies; local political developments; the setting up and activities of parent associations and a National Commission for Persons with Disability; and the action for persons with developmental disabilities of an effective Non-Governmental Organisation (NGO), The recent development of a National Minimum Curriculum (NMC) with a wide consensus intended to ensure a quality education for all is seen as a very hopeful context for the achievement of inclusive education in Malta. A critical account of current perceptions, practices, concerns and aspirations for inclusive education in Malta is provided through a review of the very recent report of the Working Group on Inclusive Education set up as part of the strategy for the implementation of the NMC over the next five years.peer-reviewe

Inclusive schools : a challenge for developing an inclusive European society

EU society and schools are both currently facing two major policy dilemmas regarding threats to social exclusion: (1) how to promote competitiveness while ensuring social cohesion (here focusing on solidarity as the attempt to reduce social inequalities); and (2) how to enhance integration while respecting the entitlement for inclusion of diverse individuals and groups. These are genuine and complex dilemmas in constant tension that have no final solution, but call for a continuous resolution of the balance between the two conflicting processes of each dilemma (Clark et al., 1999; cf. Eurydice, 1994).peer-reviewe

The process of teacher education for inclusion : the Maltese experience

This paper discusses major challenges for the development of teacher education for inclusion through an analysis of relevant recent experience in Malta. Inclusion in society and in education has been explicitly on the Maltese national agenda for the past two decades. The Faculty of Education of the University of Malta has been one of the main actors of the inclusion initiative and has also taken a European initiative through the recent co-ordination of a seven-country, 3-year European Union Comenius project on preparing teachers for responding to student diversity. This paper is based mostly on the reflective experience of the author at the Faculty of Education over the past several years. A brief picture of the Maltese education system is followed by a description of the challenges that have been encountered in the promotion of inclusion. These include the development of a rights-based approach to the education of persons with disability and the widening of its application to all minority or disadvantaged groups, and the impact of political and social contexts on the development of inclusive schools. These developments are then related to intertwined initiatives for teacher education for diversity that were further influenced by the leadership of deans and heads of the department in the faculty of education. Finally, four current issues are highlighted, namely: the strategic balance between the education of specialist educators and that of all teachers for diversity, and between specific and infusion models for such education, and, finally, the pedagogic balance between the academic and experiential learning about inclusion, and between the theory and practice of inclusive teaching.peer-reviewe

Strengthening social and emotional education as a core curricular area across the EU : a review of the international evidence

Many children and young people in contemporary Europe are unfortunately coming to school carrying heavy social and emotional burdens, which are, of course, unfavourable to their learning and psychological wellbeing. Amongst the many challenges they may face that affect their education are: poverty and social inequality, bullying and cyberbullying, family conflict, consumerism, media exploitation and technological addiction, academic pressure and stress, loneliness and social isolation, migration, human trafficking, mobility, and changing family and community structures. Policymakers and educators across the world are increasingly coalescing around a specific approach to address these many challenges, namely, social and emotional education (SEE). SEE is intended for children to develop competences in both self-awareness and self-management, and to raise social awareness and improve the quality of their relationships. These competences combine to enhance their ability to understand themselves and others, to express and regulate their emotions, to develop healthy and caring relationships, to empathise and collaborate with others, to resolve conflict constructively, to enable them to make good, responsible and ethical decisions, and to overcome difficulties in social and academic tasks. Social and emotional education is something that can be offered by schools to all children, including those affected by the additional challenges arising from various forms of disadvantage. There is mounting evidence that social and emotional education is also related to positive academic attitudes and higher academic achievement, to increased prosocial behaviour, and to a decrease in anti-social behaviour, anxiety, depression and suicide. More broadly, it contributes to harmonious relationships, to social cohesion and inclusion in communities, to positive attitudes towards individual and cultural diversity, and to equity and social justice. In light of this, the objective of this report is to make recommendations — on the basis of international research, EU policy, and current practices in Member States — for the integration of social and emotional education as a core component of curricula across the EU. More specifically, the report seeks to: • Define and identify the key competences within social and emotional education; • Review the literature to assess the effectiveness of SEE across the school years and to identify key conditions for its effective integration into curricula; • Discuss how the universal provision of SEE may accommodate children and young people from different socio-economic, ethnic and cultural backgrounds; • Explore how SEE is integrated into the school curricula of Member States, and to identify examples of existing good practice from several countries; • Make recommendations at EU, national and school levels, for the effective, sustainable and feasible inclusion of SEE as a core feature of regular school curricula across the EU.peer-reviewe

Inclusive early childhood education : literature review

This literature review on Early Childhood Education (ECE)/Inclusive Early Childhood Education (IECE) is part of the ‘Inclusive Early Childhood Education’ project, conducted by the European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education. The project’s overall goal is to identify and analyse the factors that enable quality and effective pre-primary programmes for all children in inclusive early years settings. This review shows that international organisations and the European Union (EU) regard high-quality ECE/IECE as an essential foundation for lifelong learning. It is indispensable for success in modern knowledge-based economies. Participation in high-quality pre- primary education has long-lasting positive effects on children’s development and the benefits are greater for children from a disadvantaged background (Frawley, 2014). In many cases, the early childhood stage is critical because many children’s different needs are detected once they become part of the education system. Therefore, one EU benchmark in the strategic framework for European co-operation in education and training (ET 2020) is that at least 95% of children between the age of four and compulsory school age should participate in ECE. At the same time, there are concerns about the accessibility and quality of ECE/IECE provisions. Despite its importance – especially considering the latest data about provisions for children with special educational needs (SEN) and/or at risk of social exclusion (e.g. due to poverty) in Europe from birth to seven years – the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD, 2004) reports that only one quarter of children with SEN are included in mainstream early education settings. This literature review aims to: • collect information about at-risk children and/or children with SEN in Europe at the pre-primary education level; • describe where those children are located during the pre-primary stages; • explore which resources are allocated to meet their needs; • describe the main characteristics of the educational contexts where these children are included. This document summarises major research and policy documents to analyse Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) services and programmes implemented for at-risk children and/or those with SEN. Chapter 2 introduces the definitions of the concepts that are the focus of study. Chapter 3 summarises the main documents published by international organisations and reviews the main EU policy developments related to ECE/IECE which define the context in this area. Chapter 4 reviews the latest literature describing the benefits of ECE/IECE for at-risk children and children with SEN. Chapters 5 to 10 describe relevant academic research, aiming to identify the main factors that are important in early years programmes. The key research is framed within the five principles identified by the European Commission’s Thematic Working Group on ECEC (2014), namely: • Access/transition procedures • Workforce • Curriculum/content • Governance/funding • Monitoring/evaluation.peer-reviewe

English reading comprehension assessment in Malta : an evaluation of the use of the Neale analysis of reading ability

English literacy assessments in Malta are mainly based on tests standardised among English speaking populations. Such practice raises questions as to its suitability within the Maltese bilingual context. This study explores the implications of such practice by evaluating the performance of Maltese students on a widely used test, namely the Neale Analysis of Reading Comprehension – Revised (NARA II). The test was individually administered to a total of 224 students, representing developmental processes through three age-groups between 7-14 years, and two different home language backgrounds also reflected in two different types of school, State and Independent. Analysis of variance and correlations were used to highlight differences between the scores of the three age-groups and the two types of school and home background. The results indicate that comprehension levels improved sequentially with age; however, the norms derived from a monolingual English population do not represent appropriately the varying bilingual contexts of Maltese students. Moreover, particular discrepancies in the participants’ scores on the three subscales of the test – namely Reading Comprehension, Reading Accuracy and Reading Rate raise questions about the profile of competencies in English reading comprehension that are being acquired by Maltese students.peer-reviewe

School psychology for diversity : editorial

The concept of student diversity has brought together issues related to at least two major categories of students whose needs are not usually adequately addressed in general educational provisions: students with disabilities and other forms of special educational needs, and students from minority cultures or disadvantaged backgrounds (UNESCO, 2009). School psychologists have long been at the forefront in helping education systems, educators and parents in developing an understanding and adequate provisions for these students. However, the main role ascribed to psychologists was generally that of individual assessment and intervention. Increasing understanding of the cultural context of development, increasing student diversity in schools, and a deeper appreciation of the principles of social justice, have put inclusive education at the forefront of educational reform, and this in turn has called for a change in the role of psychologists as promoters of whole-school healthy contexts for learning and development.peer-reviewe

Naturalistic decision-making frameworks in multiprofessional assessment of early childhood disability

Young children with complex developmental difficulties are often referred for\ud assessment by multiprofessional groups run by health or education services.\ud The purpose of this research is to identify and describe the frameworks within\ud which such groups make their judgements and decisions in real work settings.\ud This study adopted an exploratory, multiple-case research design. It involved\ud two tertiary multiprofessional groups in London. Each assessed two preschool\ud children whose difficulties were suspected to lie within the autistic spectrum.\ud One group consisted of a paediatric senior registrar, a clinical psychologist and\ud a speech therapist working within a neurodisability centre attached to a\ud hospital (Site M); the other group was multi-agency, managed by an\ud Educational Psychology Service and included educational psychologists, a\ud psychotherapist and the deputy head of a special school (Site E). Each child\ud was assessed by all the professionals simultaneously in the presence of the\ud parents over a morning session. All discussions were audio-recorded. Postassessment\ud interviews were held with each participant. Data were subjected\ud to verbal protocol analysis and discourse and conversation analysis.\ud The major finding of the study was that professionals made use of four types\ud of interlinked decision-making frameworks, activated either concurrently or in\ud close alternation. Firstly, a common procedural framework included\ud hypothesis testing and diagnosis carried out in three cycles of decision\ud making, with varying characteristics related to the different institutional\ud contexts of each Site. Secondly, knowledge frameworks were mainly within\ud the 'disease' model at Site M, and the 'psychodynamic' and 'behavioural'\ud models at Site E. Thirdly, goal structures were related to which client and\ud purpose each assessment was intended to serve. Finally, negotiation\ud frameworks consisted of inter-professional collaboration and power-game\ud structures, and professional-parent interaction structures for negotiating the\ud bad news. These findings have implications for research on decision making\ud in assessment of children with disability, as well as for professional practice\ud and training