Preaching Christian doctrine in a post-Christian society

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An Analysis of Student Credit Card Debt Determinants and Factors

The Permanent Income Hypothesis (PIH) derived by Milton Friedman in 1957 states that individuals will base their current consumption on what they consider to be their normal income. Normal income is derived by the individual\u27s current and expected future income. Credit cards have become prevalent among college campuses. Credit card issuers seek out students because of market saturation and the idea that students, are generally in independence limbo; still being supported by parents, yet regarded as legal adults. This study seeks to find if the PIH is valid amongst college students by using student credit card debt as a sort of proxy for consumption and their views on expected income upon graduation. A regression analysis will be performed on data that was collected via surveys testing the student\u27s credit card debt against a primary variable, expected income, and other explanatory variables. The results will show conflicting results due to the unique properties of the student population

The impact of pneumolysin on the macrophage response to Streptococcus pneumoniae is strain-dependent

Streptococcus pneumoniae is the world's leading cause of pneumonia, bacteremia, meningitis and otitis media. A major pneumococcal virulence factor is the cholesterol-dependent cytolysin, which has the defining property of forming pores in cholesterol-containing membranes. In recent times a clinically significant and internationally successful serotype 1 ST306 clone has been found to express a non-cytolytic variant of Ply (Ply306). However, while the pneumococcus is a naturally transformable organism, strains of the ST306 clonal group have to date been virtually impossible to transform, severely restricting efforts to understand the role of non-cytolytic Ply in the success of this clone. In this study isogenic Ply mutants were constructed in the D39 background and for the first time in the ST306 background (A0229467) to enable direct comparisons between Ply variants for their impact on the immune response in a macrophage-like cell line. Strains that expressed cytolytic Ply were found to induce a significant increase in IL-1β release from macrophage-like cells compared to the non-cytolytic and Ply-deficient strains in a background-independent manner, confirming the requirement for pore formation in the Ply-dependent activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome. However, cytolytic activity in the D39 background was found to induce increased expression of the genes encoding GM-CSF (CSF2), p19 subunit of IL-23 (IL23A) and IFNβ (IFNB1) compared to non-cytolytic and Ply-deficient D39 mutants, but had no effect in the A0229467 background. The impact of Ply on the immune response to the pneumococcus is highly dependent on the strain background, thus emphasising the importance of the interaction between specific virulence factors and other components of the genetic background of this organism

Lumbosacral transitional vertebrae morphology: a South African population

Lumbosacral transitional vertebrae (LSTV) are defined as congenital anatomical variations, observed unilaterally or bilaterally, in which the transverse process of the last lumbar vertebra exhibits signs of dysplasia evident as increased craniocaudal height, with varying degrees of articulation or fusion to the ‘first' sacral vertebra. Such variations give rise to vertebral morphology that may display lumbar or sacral characteristics at the terminal lumbar spine, together with subsequent enumeration variation. The purpose of this study was to establish baseline data on the prevalence rates of LSTV and to describe the morphological characteristics (Type, subtype, frequency of side and spinal enumeration) of LSTV in the South African population. This study was subdivided into two main sections, namely Part 1: medical imaging appraisal and Part 2: osteological morphology appraisal. In Part 1, both retrospective and prospective cohort randomised sampling methods of data collection of medical images were used. The appraisal of the medical images included radiographs, magnetic resonance imagers and computerised tomography scans. Prevalence rates, utilising the Castellvi et al. (1984) classification, were established via radiographs only. Additionally, lumbar spine enumeration, namely lumbarisation and sacralisation, was made through the appraisal of lumbar radiographs. Images were obtained from medical radiology practices located at Groote Schuur Hospital in Cape Town, Western Cape Province and Charlotte Maxeke Johannesburg Academic Hospital in Johannesburg, Gauteng Province. The total imaging cohort included 3096 individuals of which 308 individuals (10%) were found to contain LSTV. Prevalence rates were further evaluated by subdivision of the three largest ancestries in South Africa. Ancestries were classified as African (n=1032), Mixed (n=1032) and European (n=1032). The prevalence of LSTV in the three ancestral groups was 10.5%, 9.3% and 9.9% respectively and the sex distribution was greater in females (52.1%) then in males (47.9%). The morphological assessment found the prevalence of LSTV by Type was Type II (67.9%) followed by Types III (27.6%) and IV (4.5%). The most frequent subtype by prevalence was Type IIA (41.9%) followed by Type IIB (26%), Type IIIB (21.8%), and Type IV (5.8%). Additionally, the frequency of side was bilateral (47.7%), left (26.6%), right (21.1%), and other (4.5%). Comparison of ancestry and spinal enumeration analyses established statistical significance for individuals of African-ancestry (67.0%) and Mixed-ancestry (72.9%) both of which demonstrated a greater affinity of prevalence for sacralisation (p=0.008), with a small effect size (V=0.178) over the European-ancestry subgroup (52.4%). Furthermore, a statistical significance with a medium effect size (V=0.256) was found in males (p=0.010) when comparing ancestry and spinal enumeration between sexes. In Part 2, a systematic search of the total cadaveric skeletal collection housed at the University of Witwatersrand (the Dart Collection of skeletons) yielded 1797 human skeletal specimens of between 21 and 65 years of age at time of death. One-hundred and fourteen skeletal remains were identified as containing LSTV. Damage and loss of vertebral elements resulted in a subset of 91 LSTV for study. A sex balanced control group cohort of 30 males and 30 females was selected at random from the Dart Collection for comparative analyses. A number of osteometric measurements were evaluated comparing the LSTV and control group cohorts. Numerous osteometric comparisons were statistically significant highlighting the many changes in lumbar and sacral morphology associated with LSTV. There are several original findings to emerge. Thisis the first study to establish the prevalence of LSTV in a large sample from the South African population, subdivided into the three largest ancestral groups. Novel findings associated with LSTV include iliolumbar articulation, bipartition of the sacral foramen, intra-articular vacuum phenomenon of accessory articulations of LSTV, enlargement of the contralateral TVP associated with Types III and IV LSTV, lumbar ossified bridging syndrome and a novel complex named by the researcher as the transverso-sacro-iliac articulation. Furthermore, the researcher has proposed three modifications to the Castellvi et al. (1984) classification, namely (1) that there should be a sub-classification of the Type IV LSTV into right and left nomenclature, (2) the inclusion of a new subtype of Type II LSTV morphology, a unilateral right or left iliolumbar articulation associated with contralateral Type IIA morphology, and (3) a modified morphological classification of LSTV based on the presence of an extended sacroiliac articulation either directly or via the transverso-sacro-iliac articulation. The latter effectively increases the size of the sacroiliac joint and is thought to increase spinopelvic stability. The transverso-sacroiliac articulation was demonstrated for all clinically significant LSTV Types (II-IV), both unilateral (right or left) and bilateral. Finally, this is the first study to incorporate an in situ and an ex situ study in the same population by examining spinal morphology of LSTV using medical images and skeletal remains for descriptive analyses

Comparison of accelerometer measured levels of physical activity and sedentary time between obese and non-obese children and adolescents: a systematic review

Background: Obesity has been hypothesized to be associated with reduced moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and increased sedentary time (ST). It is important to assess whether, and the extent to which, levels of MVPA and ST are suboptimal among children and adolescents with obesity. The primary objective of this study was to examine accelerometer-measured time spent in MVPA and ST of children and adolescents with obesity, compared with MVPA recommendations, and with non-obese peers. Methods: An extensive search was carried out in Medline, Cochrane library, EMBASE, SPORTDiscus, and CINAHL, from 2000 to 2015. Study selection and appraisal: studies with accelerometer-measured MVPA and/or ST (at least 3 days and 6 h/day) in free-living obese children and adolescents (0 to 19 years) were included. Study quality was assessed formally. Meta-analyses were planned for all outcomes but were precluded due to the high levels of heterogeneity across studies. Therefore, narrative syntheses were employed for all the outcomes. Results: Out of 1503 records, 26 studies were eligible (n = 14,739 participants; n = 3523 with obesity); 6/26 studies involved children aged 0 to 9 years and 18/26 involved adolescents aged 10.1 to19 years. In the participants with obesity, the time spent in MVPA was consistently below the recommended 60 min/day and ST was generally high regardless of the participant’s age and gender. Comparison with controls suggested that the time spent in MVPA was significantly lower in children and adolescents with obesity, though differences were relatively small. Levels of MVPA in the obese and non-obese were consistently below recommendations. There were no marked differences in ST between obese and non-obese peers. Conclusions: MVPA in children and adolescents with obesity tends to be well below international recommendations. Substantial effort is likely to be required to achieve the recommended levels of MVPA among obese individuals in obesity treatment interventions

Isolation site influences virulence phenotype of serotype 14 Streptococcus pneumoniae strains belonging to multilocus sequence type 15

Streptococcus pneumoniae is a diverse species causing invasive as well as localized infections that result in massive global morbidity and mortality. Strains vary markedly in pathogenic potential, but the molecular basis is obscured by the diversity and plasticity of the pneumococcal genome. We have previously reported that S. pneumoniae serotype 3 isolates belonging to the same multilocus sequence type (MLST) differed markedly in in vitro and in vivo phenotypes, in accordance with the clinical site of isolation, suggesting stable niche adaptation within a clonal lineage. In the present study, we have extended our analysis to serotype 14 clinical isolates from cases of sepsis or otitis media that belong to the same MLST (ST15). In a murine intranasal challenge model, five ST15 isolates (three from blood and two from ears) colonized the nasopharynx to similar extents. However, blood and ear isolates exhibited significant differences in bacterial loads in other host niches (lungs, ear, and brain) at both 24 and 72 h postchallenge. In spite of these differences, blood and ear isolates were present in the lungs at similar levels at 6 h postchallenge, suggesting that early immune responses may underpin the distinct virulence phenotypes. Transcriptional analysis of lung tissue from mice infected for 6 h with blood isolates versus ear isolates revealed 8 differentially expressed genes. Two of these were exclusively expressed in response to infection with the ear isolate. These results suggest a link between the differential capacities to elicit early innate immune responses and the distinct virulence phenotypes of clonally related S. pneumoniae strains

Development of primary invasive pneumococcal disease caused by serotype 1 pneumococci is driven by early increased type I interferon response in the lung

The pneumococcus is the world's foremost respiratory pathogen, but the mechanisms allowing this pathogen to proceed from initial asymptomatic colonization to invasive disease are poorly understood. We have examined the early stages of invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) by comparing host transcriptional responses to an invasive strain and a noninvasive strain of serotype 1 Streptococcus pneumoniae in the mouse lung. While the two strains were present in equal numbers in the lung 6 h after intranasal challenge, only the invasive strain (strain 1861) had invaded the pleural cavity at that time point; this correlated with subsequent development of bacteremia in mice challenged with strain 1861 but not the noninvasive strain (strain 1). Progression beyond the lung was associated with stronger induction of the type I interferon (IFN-I) response in the lung at 6 h. Suppression of the IFN-I response through administration of neutralizing antibody to IFNAR1 (the receptor for type I interferons) led to significantly reduced invasion of the pleural cavity by strain 1861 at 6 h postchallenge. Our data suggest that strong induction of the IFN-I response is a key factor in early progression of invasive serotype 1 strain 1861 beyond the lung during development of IPD

Interactive 3-D Visualization: A tool for seafloor navigation, exploration, and engineering

Recent years have seen remarkable advances in sonar technology, positioning capabilities, and computer processing power that have revolutionized the way we image the seafloor. The massive amounts of data produced by these systems present many challenges but also offer tremendous opportunities in terms of visualization and analysis. We have developed a suite of interactive 3-D visualization and exploration tools specifically designed to facilitate the interpretation and analysis of very large (10\u27s to 100\u27s of megabytes), complex, multi-component spatial data sets. If properly georeferenced and treated, these complex data sets can be presented in a natural and intuitive manner that allows the integration of multiple components each at their inherent level of resolution and without compromising the quantitative nature of the data. Artificial sun-illumination, shading, and 3-D rendering can be used with digital bathymetric data (DTM\u27s) to form natural looking and easily interpretable, yet quantitative, landscapes. Color can be used to represent depth or other parameters (like backscatter or sediment properties) which can be draped over the DTM, or high resolution imagery can be texture mapped on bathymetric data. When combined with interactive analytical tools, this environment has facilitated the use of multibeam sonar and other data sets in a range of geologic, environmental, fisheries, and engineering applications

Mapping a Continental Shelf and Slope in the 1990s: A Tale of Three Multibeams

Increasing societal pressures on the U.S. continental shelves adjacent to dense population centers have brought to light the lack of accurate base maps in these areas. Existing bathymetric maps and random sidescan sonar surveys are either not accurate enough or do not provide the coverage necessary to make policy decisions. Until the mid 1990s, it was not financially prudent nor technically efficient to map the shallow shelves. However, the availability of high-resolution multibeam mapping systems now allow efficient and accurate mapping of the continental margins. In 1996 the U.S. Geological Survey began a large-scale seafloor mapping campaign on the continental shelf and slope adjacent to Los Angeles, CA. The first survey used a Kongsberg Simrad EM1000 (95 kHz). The survey continued in 1998 by mapping the slope and proximal basins from Newport to Long Beach, CA, using a Kongsberg Simrad EM300 (30 kHz). The area was completed in May 1999 by mapping the entire shelf adjacent to Long Beach, CA using an EM3000D (a dual-headed 300-kHz system). The mapping used both INS from the vehicle motion sensor and DGPS to provide position accuracies of ~1 m. All the data were processed in the field in near realtime using software developed at the Univ. of New Brunswick. Because of the different systems used and the range of water depths, the spatial resolution of the processed data varies from \u3c0.5 m on the inner shelf to 8 m on the basin floors. Perspective overviews of backscatter draped over bathymetry reveals a host of geological features unknown to exist in this area. These features include shallow, linear gullys, barchan dunes, small-scale bedforms in shallow troughs, major canyon system complexes, large- and smallscale mass movements, faults, and large areas of outcrop. The effects on sediment transport of man-made features, such as sewer outfall pipes and dredge-disposal fields, are clearly delineated on the new maps. The maps provide the fundamental base maps for studies as varied as those involving benthic habitats, marine disposal sites, sediment transport, and tectonic ma

A New Family of Potent AB5 Cytotoxins Produced by Shiga Toxigenic Escherichia coli

The Shiga toxigenic Escherichia coli (STEC) O113:H21 strain 98NK2, which was responsible for an outbreak of hemolytic uremic syndrome, secretes a highly potent and lethal subtilase cytotoxin that is unrelated to any bacterial toxin described to date. It is the prototype of a new family of AB5 toxins, comprising a single 35-kilodalton (kD) A subunit and a pentamer of 13-kD B subunits. The A subunit is a subtilase-like serine protease distantly related to the BA_2875 gene product of Bacillus anthracis. The B subunit is related to a putative exported protein from Yersinia pestis, and binds to a mimic of the ganglioside GM2. Subtilase cytotoxin is encoded by two closely linked, cotranscribed genes (subA and subB), which, in strain 98NK2, are located on a large, conjugative virulence plasmid. Homologues of the genes are present in 32 out of 68 other STEC strains tested. Intraperitoneal injection of purified subtilase cytotoxin was fatal for mice and resulted in extensive microvascular thrombosis, as well as necrosis in the brain, kidneys, and liver. Oral challenge of mice with E. coli K-12–expressing cloned subA and subB resulted in dramatic weight loss. These findings suggest that the toxin may contribute to the pathogenesis of human disease