Monitoring Animal Behaviour and Environmental Interactions Using Wireless Sensor Networks, GPS Collars and Satellite Remote Sensing

Remote monitoring of animal behaviour in the environment can assist in managing both the animal and its environmental impact. GPS collars which record animal locations with high temporal frequency allow researchers to monitor both animal behaviour and interactions with the environment. These ground-based sensors can be combined with remotely-sensed satellite images to understand animal-landscape interactions. The key to combining these technologies is communication methods such as wireless sensor networks (WSNs). We explore this concept using a case-study from an extensive cattle enterprise in northern Australia and demonstrate the potential for combining GPS collars and satellite images in a WSN to monitor behavioural preferences and social behaviour of cattle

Using walk-over-weighing technology for parturition date determination in beef cattle

Corbet, NJ ORCiD: 0000-0002-7468-2177The northern Australian beef industry is dominated by cow-calf operations where reproductive efficiency is a major profit driver. The postpartum anoestrus interval is a major contributor to an animal's reproductive efficiency and is influenced by genetic selection. The genetic trait that measures an animal's postpartum anoestrus interval is the days to calving estimated breeding value and a key requirement is knowledge of the cow's calving date. Traditionally calving date is recorded using laborious and costly methods that are impeding the recording and hence the accuracy of genetic predictions for this trait by the northern Australian seedstock industry. The present experiment used Walk-over-Weighing technology to automatically record animal weights as cattle enter a restricted area where they access water. With the use of a novel method to accurately assess weights, the growth paths of cows were tracked from late gestation to post-calving. The calving date was visualised in the growth paths of most cows (78.3%) and a custom algorithm was able to automatically detect the calving date within 10 days of the observed calving period for 63% of cows. The use of Walk-over-Weighing to record calving date provides the opportunity to increase the recording of the days to calving estimated breeding value in the northern seedstock industry, thereby increasing reproductive efficiency and improving the profitability of northern beef producers. © CSIRO 2018 Open Access

Changes in the suckling behaviour of beef calves at 1 month and 4 months of age and effect on cow production variables

The experiment used tri-axial accelerometers to record changes in suckling behaviour in beef calves with advancing age and also investigated the correlations between suckling behaviour, production variables and postpartum anestrous period (PPAP) of cows. Data were collected from 20 Bos taurus calves reared under pastoral conditions of northern Australia over two periods: when calves were on average1 and 4 months old. Calves suckled less frequently per 24 h at 4 months (8.2 ± 0.66 times) than at 1 month of age (9.8 ± 0.46 times, P 0.05). However, the ADWG of cows were negatively associated with suckling duration per bout (rho=-0.54, P < 0.05). Cow's PPAP was shorter when they had greater body condition score (BCS) (at 4 months of calf's age rho=-0.49, P < 0.05), greater loin eye muscle area (LEMA) (at 1 month of calf's age rho=-0.58, P < 0.05; at 4 months of calf's age rho = 0.57, P < 0.05) and greater fat depth over rib (at 1month of calf's age rho=-0.45, P < 0.05). Dams with greater fat depth over their ribs at 1 month of their calves’ age nursed their calves less frequently when they were 4 months old (rho=-0.52, P < 0.05). It is concluded that calf suckling behaviour changes with age, specifically bout length increases and suckling frequency decreases. Additionally, the calves of dams in greater body condition suckle less frequently, suggesting the dams may have greater overall reproduction efficiency

Recording cattle maternal behaviour using proximity loggers and tri-axial accelerometers

The close proximities between cow–calf pairs and suckling behaviour of calves are very important for calf survival; as the cow provides nutrients (milk) and protection to the calf from predators and teaches various important life survival skills. In extensive production systems, with the help of technology précised and accurate data of animal behaviour can be obtained. This study used tri-axial accelerometers and proximity loggers to record the time spent in suckling and in close proximity by cow–calf pairs, respectively. The relationship between these two behaviours and similarities in circadian variations were explored. The use of proximity loggers as a proxy for accelerometers to record suckling behaviour was investigated. The effect of sex, age, birth weight of calves; weight of both cows and calves at the time of data collection and parity of cows on the time spent by cow–calf pairs in close proximity was determined. During the 2015–16 breeding season, 28 B. taurus (Belmont Red) cow–calf pairs were studied for 12 days. Proximity logging collars were fitted to all cows and calves, while calves were also fitted with halters containing tri-axial accelerometers on the right-side strap. The results showed that calves spent on average 102.5 ± 13.26 min per day in close proximity to their dams, with the average duration of each close proximity was 0.7 ± 0.07 min, and the average number of close proximities in 24 h was 128.5 ± 16.98. Calves spent a total of 73.3 ± 7.36 min per day suckling, with an average duration of each suckling bout of 9.4 ± 0.39 min, and an average number of 7.7 ± 0.67 suckling bouts in 24 h. There was no relation found between any parameters of time spent in close proximity with time spent in suckling. All the suckling events recorded by accelerometers were not recorded as close proximity by proximity loggers due to interrupted signals, confirming that proximity loggers were not a suitable proxy to record the suckling bouts. The frequency, average duration and total duration of contacts between cow–calf pairs were greater during non-suckling events compared with suckling events. Three similar peaks in circadian pattern of frequency of contact and suckling were found. The calves’ age, birth weight, weight of both calves and cows at the time of data collection and parities of cows had no effect on their close proximity. The female calves contacted with their dams more frequently than male calves

Time is of the essence: An application of a relational event model for animal social networks.

Understanding how animal social relationships are created, maintained and severed has ecological and evolutionary significance. Animal social relationships are inferred from observations of interactions between animals; the pattern of interaction over time indicates the existence (or absence) of a social relationship. Autonomous behavioural recording technologies are increasingly being used to collect continuous interaction data on animal associations. However, continuous data sequences are typically aggregated to represent a relationship as part of one (or several) pictures of the network of relations among animals, in a way that parallels human social networks. This transformation entails loss of information about interaction timing and sequence, which are particularly important to understand the formation of relationships or their disruption. Here, we describe a new statistical model, termed the relational event model, that enables the analysis of fine-grained animal association data as a continuous time sequence without requiring aggregation of the data. We apply the model to a unique data set of interaction between familiar and unfamiliar steers during a series of 36 experiments to investigate the process of social disruption and relationship formation. We show how the model provides key insights into animal behaviour in terms of relationship building, the integration process of unfamiliar animals and group building dynamics. The relational event model is well suited to data structures that are common to animal behavioural studies and can therefore be applied to a range of social interaction data to understand animal social dynamics

Social companionship versus food : the effect of the presence of familiar and unfamiliar conspecifics on the distance steers travel

The social motivation of a grazing individual to remain in close proximity to its peer is dependent on many factors, particularly the level of familiarity with its peers and the desire to forage further away. This study examined the trade-off individual cattle have to make between a food reward and maintaining close proximity to a peer with which they are either familiar or unfamiliar. Two unfamiliar groups of 12 Brahman steers were individually tested in a 30 m × 140 m grassed arena with an adjoining holding yard containing the peer. During the without-food test, no food was provided to motivate individuals to move away from their peer. In the with-food tests, 13 food bowls containing 250 g of pelleted grain were placed at 10 m increments directly in front of the penned animal. Every individual from each group was paired with both a familiar and unfamiliar peer during the without-food and with-food test phases and their distances and behaviour were recorded for 30 min. The mean distance travelled from the penned steer was higher in the with-food test than the without-food test for steers paired with both familiar and unfamiliar peers, indicating that the food source provided the motivation to move away from the penned steer. Steers paired with familiar peers had more bowl visits (familiar = 12.0 ± 1.24 bowl visits, unfamiliar 7.5 ± 1.22 bowl visits, P = 0.014) and visited bowls at a greater rate (familiar: 22.6 ± 3.27% time bowl visiting, unfamiliar 12.6 ± 3.13% time bowl visiting, P = 0.033) compared to steers paired with unfamiliar peers. It was concluded that familiarity does affect an individual's decision to move away from a peer to forage; steers are more willing to move away from a familiar peer to seek a food reward than with an unfamiliar peer

Time is of the essence: An application of a relational event model for animal social networks.

Understanding how animal social relationships are created, maintained and severed has ecological and evolutionary significance. Animal social relationships are inferred from observations of interactions between animals; the pattern of interaction over time indicates the existence (or absence) of a social relationship. Autonomous behavioural recording technologies are increasingly being used to collect continuous interaction data on animal associations. However, continuous data sequences are typically aggregated to represent a relationship as part of one (or several) pictures of the network of relations among animals, in a way that parallels human social networks. This transformation entails loss of information about interaction timing and sequence, which are particularly important to understand the formation of relationships or their disruption. Here, we describe a new statistical model, termed the relational event model, that enables the analysis of fine-grained animal association data as a continuous time sequence without requiring aggregation of the data. We apply the model to a unique data set of interaction between familiar and unfamiliar steers during a series of 36 experiments to investigate the process of social disruption and relationship formation. We show how the model provides key insights into animal behaviour in terms of relationship building, the integration process of unfamiliar animals and group building dynamics. The relational event model is well suited to data structures that are common to animal behavioural studies and can therefore be applied to a range of social interaction data to understand animal social dynamics

Changes in temporal and spatial associations between pairs of cattle during the process of familiarisation

Mixing unfamiliar individuals is a common practice in livestock production systems. However, a change in social structure can create social stresses, which can adversely affect animal welfare and reduce production. In this study, social interaction metrics were used to investigate interaction and behavioural differences between familiar and unfamiliar pairs. These differences were used to characterise features of the familiarisation process between pairs of unfamiliar steers. Proximity loggers quantified the frequency and duration of close proximity encounters between animals while visual observations evaluated the distance and movement between individuals within pairs and described their behaviour. Fifteen pairs of familiar steers and 15 pairs of unfamiliar steers were observed over 5 weeks. Each pair was monitored for 5 days in a 3 ha paddock with contact between adjacent pairs prevented by a 20 m buffer zone. Unfamiliar pairs initially maintained further distance apart than familiar pairs, but after 3 days their distances were similar to familiar pairs. Unfamiliar pairs had increased (P < 0.05) movement towards and away from each other while familiar pairs tended to spend more (P < 0.10) time lying and standing and less (P < 0.05) time grazing than unfamiliar pairs. The results confirm that familiarity affects proximity between pairs of steers and that differences in behaviour and movement patterns between familiar and unfamiliar pairs emphasise the disruptive effect of introducing new individuals. The decrease in proximity between unfamiliar pairs over time suggests familiarisation between pairs begins early (after 3 days). However, overall familiar pairs had more close proximity encounters per hour than unfamiliar pairs (3.8 and 2.3 contacts/h respectively, P < 0.01) and showed a tendency to spend more time lying and standing than unfamiliar pairs; these differences were constant over the 5 day period indicating that complete familiarisation had not occurred within 5 days

Monitoring animal behaviour and environmental interactions : GPS collars and satellite remote sensing within a satellite remote sensing context

Remote monitoring of animal behaviour in the environment can assist in managing both the animal and its environmental impact. GPS collars which record animal locations with high temporal frequency allow researchers to monitor both animal behaviour and interactions with the environment. These ground-based sensors can be combined with remotely-sensed satellite images to understand animal-landscape interactions. The key to combining these technologies is communication methods such as wireless sensor networks (WSNs). We explore this concept using a case-study from an extensive cattle enterprise in northern Australia and demonstrate the potential for combining GPS collars and satellite images in a WSN to monitor behavioural preferences and social behaviour of cattle.\u

Monitoring animal behaviour and environmental interactions : GPS collars and satellite remote sensing within a satellite remote sensing context

Remote monitoring of animal behaviour in the environment can assist in managing both the animal and its environmental impact. GPS collars which record animal locations with high temporal frequency allow researchers to monitor both animal behaviour and interactions with the environment. These ground-based sensors can be combined with remotely-sensed satellite images to understand animal-landscape interactions. The key to combining these technologies is communication methods such as wireless sensor networks (WSNs). We explore this concept using a case-study from an extensive cattle enterprise in northern Australia and demonstrate the potential for combining GPS collars and satellite images in a WSN to monitor behavioural preferences and social behaviour of cattle