Fault reactivation by fluid injection: Controls from stress state and injection rate

We studied the influence of stress state and fluid injection rate on the reactivation of faults. We conducted experiments on a saw-cut Westerly granite sample under triaxial stress conditions. Fault reactivation was triggered by injecting fluids through a borehole directly connected to the fault. Our results show that the peak fluid pressure at the borehole leading to reactivation depends on injection rate. The higher the injection rate, the higher the peak fluid pressure allowing fault reactivation. Elastic wave velocity measurements along fault strike highlight that high injection rates induce significant fluid pressure heterogeneities, which explains that the onset of fault reactivation is not determined by a conventional Coulomb law and effective stress principle, but rather by a nonlocal rupture initiation criterion. Our results demonstrate that increasing the injection rate enhances the transition from drained to undrained conditions, where local but intense fluid pressures perturbations can reactivate large faults

On the scale dependence in the dynamics of frictional rupture: Constant fracture energy versus size-dependent breakdown work

Potential energy stored during the inter-seismic period by tectonic loading around faults is released during earthquakes as radiated energy, frictional dissipation and fracture energy. The latter is of first importance since it is expected to control the nucleation, the propagation and the arrest of the seismic rupture. On one side, the seismological fracture energy estimated for natural earthquakes (commonly called breakdown work) ranges between 1 J/m2 and tens of MJ/m2 for the largest events, and shows a clear slip dependence. On the other side, recent experimental studies highlighted that, concerning rupture experiments, fracture energy is a material property (energy required to break the fault interface) independently of the size of the event, i.e. of the seismic slip. To reconcile these contradictory observations and definitions, we performed stick-slip experiments, as analog for earthquakes, in a bi-axial shear configuration. We estimated fracture energy through both Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM) and a Cohesive Zone Model (CZM) and through the integration of the near-fault stress-slip evolution. We show that, at the scale of our experiments, fault weakening is divided into a near-tip weakening, corresponding to an energy of few J/m2, consistent with the one estimated through LEFM and CZM, and a long-tailed weakening corresponding to a larger energy not localized at the rupture tip, increasing with slip. Through numerical simulations, we demonstrate that only near-tip weakening controls the rupture initiation and that long-tailed weakening can enhance slip during rupture propagation and allow the rupture to overcome stress heterogeneity along the fault. We conclude that the origin of the seismological estimates of breakdown work could be related to the energy dissipated in the long-tailed weakening rather than to the one dissipated near the tip

Energy budget of laboratory earthquakes: a comparison between linear elastic fracture mechanics approach and experimental approach

Earthquakes correspond to a sudden release of elastic energy stored during inter-seismic period by tectonic loading around fault. The earthquake energy budget consists of four non-independent terms: the energy release rate (by unit crack length), the fracture energy, the heat term and finally the radiated energy. These terms depend on the rupture and sliding velocities, the amount of slip and the stress drop. Because of the impossibility to access to stress and strain conditions at depth, the earthquake energy budget cannot be fully constrained from seismological data, limiting our understanding of its influence on rupture propagation. To address this issue, we conducted stick-slip experiments with large samples in a biaxial configuration apparatus. By imposing constant normal load and increasing shear load, seismic events were produced on a 20 cm long fault, for which the energy budget was estimated using different methods. Fracture energy was estimated by recording the strain field around the crack tip through high frequency (2 MHz) strain gage rosettes array and comparing it to the theoretical LEFM strain field predictions obtained for same conditions (i.e. rupture velocity, distance from the fault). Fracture energies were then inverted and found to range in between 1 and 10 J/m2. At the same time the energy partitioning was estimated through stress-slip evolution during rupture. The fracture energies obtained from this method are almost one order of magnitude larger than the ones inverted from LEFM and range in between 1 and 90 J/m2. Moreover, the energy partitioning shows the radiated energy ranging between 80 and 300 J/m2 and finally the heat/thermal energy as the largest fraction of the energy partitioning with values ranging from 200 to 2500 J/m2. Our preliminary results highlight the importance of understanding the contribution of heat energy in frictional processes, since this term cannot be estimated from seismological data

Brittle faulting of ductile rock induced by pore fluid pressure build‐up

Under upper crustal conditions, deformations are primarily brittle (i.e., localized) and accommodated by frictional mechanisms. At greater depth, deformations are ductile (i.e., distributed) and accommodated by crystal plasticity, diffusion mass transfer or cataclastic flow. The transition from the brittle to the ductile domain is not associated with a critical depth, but rather varies in time and space. One main parameter controlling the variation of this transition is the pore fluid pressure. On the one hand, a pore fluid pressure increase reduces the effective stresses and possibly increases the strain rate, bringing the system closer to brittle conditions. On the other hand, pore fluid can favour ductile mechanisms, mostly via chemical effects, by facilitating intra‐crystalline plasticity, enhancing fluid‐solid diffusion and fracture healing/sealing. We report triaxial laboratory experiments that investigated the effect of pore fluid pressure increase during the ductile deformation of Tavel limestone. Three injection rates were tested: 1, 5 and 10 MPa/min. We demonstrate that: 1) Under initially ductile conditions pore fluid pressure increase immediately turns the system from compaction to dilation. 2) Dilation is due to the development of localized shear fractures. However, the macroscopic localisation of the deformation is not instantaneous when the ductile to brittle transition is surpassed; a transient creeping phase is first needed. 3) To reach macroscopic brittle failure of initially ductile samples, a critical dilatancy is required. 4) Injection rate controls the final fracture distribution. We demonstrate that pore pressure build‐up in a rock undergoing ductile deformation can induce shear fracturing of the system

On the scale dependence in the dynamics of frictional rupture: Constant fracture energy versus size-dependent breakdown work

Potential energy stored during the inter-seismic period by tectonic loading around faults is released during earthquakes as radiated energy, frictional dissipation and fracture energy. The latter is of first importance since it is expected to control the nucleation, the propagation and the arrest of the seismic rupture. On one side, the seismological fracture energy estimated for natural earthquakes (commonly called breakdown work) ranges between 1 J/m2and tens of MJ/m2for the largest events, and shows a clear slip dependence. On the other side, recent experimental studies highlighted that, concerning rupture experiments, fracture energy is a material property (energy required to break the fault interface) independently of the size of the event, i.e. of the seismic slip. To reconcile these contradictory observations and definitions, we performed stick-slip experiments, as analog for earthquakes, in a bi-axial shear configuration. We estimated fracture energy through both Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM) and a Cohesive Zone Model (CZM) and through the integration of the near-fault stress-slip evolution. We show that, at the scale of our experiments, fault weakening is divided into a near-tip weakening, corresponding to an energy of few J/m2, consistent with the one estimated through LEFM and CZM, and a long-tailed weakening corresponding to a larger energy not localized at the rupture tip, increasing with slip. Through numerical simulations, we demonstrate that only near-tip weakening controls the rupture initiation and that long-tailed weakening can enhance slip during rupture propagation and allow the rupture to overcome stress heterogeneity along the fault. We conclude that the origin of the seismological estimates of breakdown work could be related to the energy dissipated in the long-tailed weakening rather than to the one dissipated near the tip.LEM

Experimental plastic reactivation of pseudotachylyte‐filled shear zones

Pseudotachylytes are fine‐grained fault rocks that solidify from melt that is produced in fault zones during earthquakes. Exposed sections of natural fault zones reveal evidence of post‐seismic plastic deformation (i.e. reactivation) of pseudotachylyte, which suggests these rocks may contribute to aseismic slip behavior in regions of repeated seismicity. To measure the plastic flow behavior of pseudotachylyte, we performed high temperature deformation experiments on pseudotachylyte from the Gole Larghe Fault Zone, Italy. Plastic reactivation of pseudotachylyte occurs at temperatures above 700°C for strain rates accessible during laboratory experiments. Extrapolation of experimental results to natural conditions demonstrates that pseudotachylyte deforms via diffusion creep at crustal conditions and is much weaker than host rocks in seismically active regions. Importantly, the presence of plastically deforming pseudotachylyte may influence the thickness of the seismogenic layer in some fault zones that experience repeated seismicity

Dynamic rupture processes inferred from laboratory microearthquakes

We report macroscopic stick-slip events in saw-cut Westerly granite samples deformed under controlled upper crustal stress conditions in the laboratory. Experiments were conducted under triaxial loading (σ1>σ2=σ3) at confining pressures (σ3) ranging from 10 to 100 MPa. A high frequency acoustic monitoring array recorded particle acceleration during macroscopic stick-slip events allowing us to estimate rupture speed. In addition, we record the stress drop dynamically and we show that the dynamic stress drop measured locally close to the fault plane, is almost total in the breakdown zone (for normal stress > 75 MPa), while the friction f recovers to values of f > 0.4 within only a few hundred microseconds. Enhanced dynamic weakening is observed to be linked to the melting of asperities which can be well explained by flash heating theory in agreement with our post-mortem microstructural analysis. Relationships between initial state of stress, rupture velocities, stress drop and energy budget suggest that at high normal stress (leading to supershear rupture velocities), the rupture processes are more dissipative. Our observations question the current dichotomy between the fracture energy and the frictional energy in terms of rupture processes. A power law scaling of the fracture energy with final slip is observed over eight orders of magnitude in slip, from a few microns to tens of meters

Dynamic weakening and amorphization in serpentinite during laboratory earthquakes

The mechanical properties of serpentinites are key factors in our understanding of the dynamics of earthquake ruptures in subduction zones, especially intermediate-depth earthquakes. Here, we performed shear rupture experiments on natural antigorite serpentinite, which showed that friction reaches near-zero values during spontaneous dynamic rupture propagation. Rapid coseismic slip (>1 m/s), although it occurs over short distances (<1 mm), induces significant overheating of microscale asperities along the sliding surface, sufficient to produce surface amorphization and likely some melting. Antigorite dehydration occurs in the fault walls, which leaves a partially amorphized material. The water generated potentially contributes to the production of a low-viscosity pressurized melt, explaining the near-zero dynamic friction levels observed in some events. The rapid and dramatic dynamic weakening in serpentinite might be a key process facilitating the propagation of earthquakes at intermediate depths in subduction zones