10.3 GLIA-EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX INTERACTIONS IN THE PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF SCHIZOPHRENIA AND BIPOLAR DISORDER

Abstract Background: Growing evidence from our group and others indicates that key neural functions, including regulation of synaptic plasticity and axonal guidance and connectivity, arise from interactions between glial cells, neurons, and the extracellular matrix. Several distinct populations of glial cells critically contribute to the composition of main components of the extracellular matrix (ECM), synthesizing them and secreting them into the extracellular space, where they become incorporated in organized ECM structures. The brain ECM, and chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs) in particular, play a key role in brain development and adult life, in turn regulating glial functions as well as synaptic plasticity and neural connectivity. We have previously shown that glial cells expressing CSPGs are altered in the amygdala and entorhinal cortex of people with schizophrenia (SZ) and bipolar disorder (BD). These changes are accompanied by marked decreases of perineuronal nets (PNNs), organized ECM structures unsheathing distinct neuronal populations. Recent and ongoing studies are focused on novel CSPG-enriched ECM structures, related to synaptic complexes and myelinated axons, their relationship to glial populations and their involvement in the pathophysiology of SZ and BD. Methods: Postmortem tissue samples from the amygdala, entorhinal cortex and thalamus from a well characterized cohort of healthy control, SZ and BD subjects were included in these studies. Multiplex immunofluorescence combined with quantitative microscopy was used to quantify glial cells and CSPGs, while electron microscopy on human and mouse tissue were used to investigate ultrastructural morphology. Step-wise ANOVA analyses included several potential confounds such as exposure to pharmacological agents and substance abuse. Results: Our results show that at least two novel ECM structures are present in the human brain. The first, enriched in CSPGs bearing chondroitin sulfation in position 6 (CS-6), and named here ‘CS-6 clusters’ was found to be markedly decreased in the amygdala of people with SZ and BD. Electron microscopy studies show that CS-6 clusters are composed of astrocytes synthesizing and secreting CS-6 CSPGs in the vicinity of adjacent groups of dendrites, where it is incorporated into postsynaptic densities of dendritic spines. The second CSPG-enriched ECM structure, i.e. axonal coats, has been observed in the human thalamus to envelope distinct populations of axons, interweaving with myelin sheets. Its main CSPG components appear to be synthesized and secreted by oligodendrocytes precursor cells located in the vicinity of axon bundles. Preliminary results show abnormalities affecting both oligodendrocyte precursors and axonal coats in SZ. Discussion In summary, our results show complex interactions between glial cells, neurons and ECM, potentially affecting synaptic functions and axonal conductance. Results in SZ and BD point to a profound disruption of these interactions in several brain regions

The tetrapartite synapse: a key concept in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia

Growing evidence points to synaptic pathology as a core component of the pathophysiology of schizophrenia (SZ). Significant reductions of dendritic spine density and altered expression of their structural and molecular components have been reported in several brain regions, suggesting a deficit of synaptic plasticity. Regulation of synaptic plasticity is a complex process, one that requires not only interactions between pre- and post-synaptic terminals, but also glial cells and the extracellular matrix (ECM). Together, these elements are referred to as the ‘tetrapartite synapse’, an emerging concept supported by accumulating evidence for a role of glial cells and the extracellular matrix in regulating structural and functional aspects of synaptic plasticity. In particular, chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs), one of the main components of the ECM, have been shown to be synthesized predominantly by glial cells, to form organized perisynaptic aggregates known as perineuronal nets (PNNs), and to modulate synaptic signaling and plasticity during postnatal development and adulthood. Notably, recent findings from our group and others have shown marked CSPG abnormalities in several brain regions of people with SZ. These abnormalities were found to affect specialized ECM structures, including PNNs, as well as glial cells expressing the corresponding CSPGs. The purpose of this review is to bring forth the hypothesis that synaptic pathology in SZ arises from a disruption of the interactions between elements of the tetrapartite synapse

SKA2 regulated hyperactive secretory autophagy drives neuroinflammation-induced neurodegeneration

High levels of proinflammatory cytokines induce neurotoxicity and catalyze inflammation-driven neurodegeneration, but the specific release mechanisms from microglia remain elusive. Here we show that secretory autophagy (SA), a non-lytic modality of autophagy for secretion of vesicular cargo, regulates neuroinflammation-mediated neurodegeneration via SKA2 and FKBP5 signaling. SKA2 inhibits SA-dependent IL-1β release by counteracting FKBP5 function. Hippocampal Ska2 knockdown in male mice hyperactivates SA resulting in neuroinflammation, subsequent neurodegeneration and complete hippocampal atrophy within six weeks. The hyperactivation of SA increases IL-1β release, contributing to an inflammatory feed-forward vicious cycle including NLRP3-inflammasome activation and Gasdermin D-mediated neurotoxicity, which ultimately drives neurodegeneration. Results from protein expression and co-immunoprecipitation analyses of male and female postmortem human brains demonstrate that SA is hyperactivated in Alzheimer's disease. Overall, our findings suggest that SKA2-regulated, hyperactive SA facilitates neuroinflammation and is linked to Alzheimer's disease, providing mechanistic insight into the biology of neuroinflammation

A Fear-Inducing Odor Alters PER2 and c-Fos Expression in Brain Regions Involved in Fear Memory

Evidence demonstrates that rodents learn to associate a foot shock with time of day, indicating the formation of a fear related time-stamp memory, even in the absence of a functioning SCN. In addition, mice acquire and retain fear memory better during the early day compared to the early night. This type of memory may be regulated by circadian pacemakers outside of the SCN. As a first step in testing the hypothesis that clock genes are involved in the formation of a time-stamp fear memory, we exposed one group of mice to fox feces derived odor (TMT) at ZT 0 and one group at ZT 12 for 4 successive days. A separate group with no exposure to TMT was also included as a control. Animals were sacrificed one day after the last exposure to TMT, and PER2 and c-Fos protein were quantified in the SCN, amygdala, hippocampus, and piriform cortex. Exposure to TMT had a strong effect at ZT 0, decreasing PER2 expression at this time point in most regions except the SCN, and reversing the normal rhythm of PER2 expression in the amygdala and piriform cortex. These changes were accompanied by increased c-Fos expression at ZT0. In contrast, exposure to TMT at ZT 12 abolished the rhythm of PER2 expression in the amygdala. In addition, increased c-Fos expression at ZT 12 was only detected in the central nucleus of the amygdala in the TMT12 group. TMT exposure at either time point did not affect PER2 or c-Fos in the SCN, indicating that under a light-dark cycle, the SCN rhythm is stable in the presence of repeated exposure to a fear-inducing stimulus. Taken together, these results indicate that entrainment to a fear-inducing stimulus leads to changes in PER2 and c-Fos expression that are detected 24 hours following the last exposure to TMT, indicating entrainment of endogenous oscillators in these regions. The observed effects on PER2 expression and c-Fos were stronger during the early day than during the early night, possibly to prepare appropriate systems at ZT 0 to respond to a fear-inducing stimulus

In Sickness and in Health: Perineuronal Nets and Synaptic Plasticity in Psychiatric Disorders

Rapidly emerging evidence implicates perineuronal nets (PNNs) and extracellular matrix (ECM) molecules that compose or interact with PNNs, in the pathophysiology of several psychiatric disorders. Studies on schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorders, mood disorders, Alzheimer's disease, and epilepsy point to the involvement of ECM molecules such as chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans, Reelin, and matrix metalloproteases, as well as their cell surface receptors. In many of these disorders, PNN abnormalities have also been reported. In the context of the “quadripartite” synapse concept, that is, the functional unit composed of the pre- and postsynaptic terminals, glial processes, and ECM, and of the role that PNNs and ECM molecules play in regulating synaptic functions and plasticity, these findings resonate with one of the most well-replicated aspects of the pathology of psychiatric disorders, that is, synaptic abnormalities. Here we review the evidence for PNN/ECM-related pathology in these disorders, with particular emphasis on schizophrenia, and discuss the hypothesis that such pathology may significantly contribute to synaptic dysfunction

One-Way ANOVA (main effect of ZT).

<p>One-Way ANOVA (main effect of ZT).</p

TMT exposure alters expression of PER2 and c-Fos in the BLA.

<p>TMT altered the rhythm and amount of expression of PER2 in the BLA resulting in significantly lower expression at ZT 0 for the TMT0 group and significantly higher expression at ZT 6 and ZT 12 for both experimental groups (A). TMT exposure also resulted in an increase of c-Fos expression at ZT 0 for both groups, with the increase for the TMT0 group significantly higher than the TMT12 group (B). Photomicrographs showing low amount of PER2 immunoreactivity in the BLA of a TMT 0 animal at ZT 0 (C) and normal amount of immunoreactivity the same timepoint for a TMT12 animal (D). Photomicrographs showing increased c-Fos expression at ZT 0 in the BLA of a TMT0 animal (E) and lower level of expression at ZT 0 in a TMT12 animal (F). *significantly different from control group at that time point (p<0.05) **significantly different from control and experimental group at that timepoint (p<0.05). The values for ZT 0 are repeated as ZT 24. Error bars represent standard errors.</p