The Place of Urban Food Forests in Cities of the 21st Century

The history of urban food forests (UFFs) dates back to ancient times, when civilizations incorporated edible species into wild forests to create an ecosystem as natural as and self‐sufficient as possible. Since the second half of the 20th century, the practices of integrating edible plants into ornamental landscapes have spread throughout the world. Currently, UFFs must face a number of challenges similar to those encountered by urban forests: land tenure, governance, technical capacities, and pollution and global change issues, and must be addressed in order to identify the most suitable combination of productive, environmental, and socio‐economic functions of UFF. The events on a global scale that occurred in the first decades of the 21st century are forcing those who live and work in urban environments to react quickly to address the upcoming challenges

The Party System in Spain and Its Indicators: A Review from The Transition to The Present Day

The aim is to analyzethe main indicators of the party system in order to define the whole from its different explanatory elements. The objective is to update the academic information based on the study of the main single-member indicators, thus characterizing the Spanish party system up to the XIV legislature. After the construction of an electoral matrix in SPSS, the data are introduced into the formulas and functions of the indicators, under the descriptive statistics method. For the forecasts, the linear regression technique, inserted in inferential statistics, will be used. The foundational stage is defined by a very high electoral concentration index, low fragmentation, only two as a result of the NEP and volatility between blocks. From 2015 onwards, the concentration index reaches historic lows. Counterintuitively, electoral competitiveness declines from 2016 onwards, with fragmentation increasing to 0.88/1. Looking ahead, the data show an electoral evolution favorable to the left, accompanied by a new crystallization of voters into ideological poles. At the same time, there is an increase in intra-bloc volatility close to 25%. These results indicate that electoral competition will take place within each of the main ideological spaces

Recuperación de las ramblas como elemento de valor paisajístico en zonas rurales del sureste peninsular: la rambla de Chirivel

MEDIO RURAL Y SOSTENIBILIDAD IV CONGRESO ANDALUZ DE DESARROLLO SOSTENIBLE VIII CONGRESO ANDALUZ DE CIENCIAS AMBIENTALE

Towards a Standard Framework to Identify Green Infrastructure Key Elements in Dense Mediterranean Cities

Present-day dense cities are increasingly affected by the impacts associated with climate change. The recurrence of extreme climate events is projected to be intensified in cities in the next decades, especially in the most vulnerable areas of the world, such as the Mediterranean region. In this context, the urban green infrastructure (UGI) is presented as a nature-based solution that directly contributes to climate change mitigation in Mediterranean compact cities and improves health, social, welfare, and environmental conditions for inhabitants. This research sets out a manageable framework to define, locate, and categorize more functional green urban and peri-urban areas in a dense Mediterranean city. It takes spatial distribution, extension, and the capacity to improve inhabitants’ wellbeing through the provision of ecosystem services as classification criteria. Results show a scenario with a greater functional green surface available for the citizens to be managed. Identified areas have been categorized as cores, nodes, links, and green spaces defined as “other” areas. In particular, the latter play a significant role at social, structural, and ecological levels. The study showcases that rethinking urban design and strategic decision-making around these areas can enhance green equity in Mediterranean dense cities, their capacity to better deal with environmental extremes, and the inhabitants’ engagement with a culture of sustainability and wellbeing

Propuesta de recuperación de la rambla de Chirivel como elemento de valor paisajístico del sureste peninsular

Las ramblas son uno de los elementos geomorfológicos más peculiares del sureste peninsular, donde juegan un papel fundamental como vectores de evacuación rápida de agua tras precipitaciones torrenciales. Sin embargo, el hecho de que no lleven agua de forma permanente han sido factor condicionante a la hora de realizar acciones de ordenación y recuperación, encontrándose un buen número de ellas en estado elevado de alteración. En este trabajo se propone un modelo de recuperación de la fisionomía tradicional de una rambla del sureste peninsular, con especial énfasis en la vegetación característica de la zona y su valor como elemento del paisaje. El área considerada ha sido el tramo urbano de la rambla de Chirivel, que discurre por la localidad del mismo nombre en la provincia de Almería. Para conocer su estado ambiental actual, se ha realizado la caracterización de las diferentes comunidades vegetales presentes en la rambla, así como los datos referentes al grado de cobertura, conectividad y usos del suelo. Se ha realizado la caracterización tipológica de la rambla en función de una serie de parámetros y variables geomorfológicas y se ha elaborado el listado de los principales impactos detectados, tanto relacionados con actividades humanas como con procesos naturales. La valoración pone de manifiesto que las actividades antrópicas son las que generan un mayor número de impactos en la rambla tanto a nivel erosivo como en la vegetación, destacando por su importancia el tráfico de vehículos, el abandono de tierras agrícolas y actuaciones de reforestación inadecuadas. La propuesta aquí presentada promueve una recuperación a diferentes niveles: botánico, utilizando especies propias de la zona; ambiental, minimizando los impactos existentes; ecológico, manteniendo su funcionalidad como vector de transporte de aguas de escorrentía y paisajista, para devolver a la rambla todo su valor como elemento característico de zonas áridas.The “ramblas” (dry watercourses) are one of the most characteristics geomorphological elements in the south-eastern part of the Iberian peninsula, where they play an important role as vector of rapid evacuation of water after torrential precipitations. However, the fact that they no have permanent water have been a determining factor at time to carry out actions of recovery, being most of them in a high degree of disturbance. In this work is presented a model of recovery of the traditional appearance of a south-eastern rambla, with particular emphasis in the typical vegetation of the zona and its value as element of landscape. The area of study has been the urban strech of the rambla of Chirivel, that runs in paralell to the locality of same name in the province of Almeria. To know the current environmental state of the rambla, the description of the different plant communities present have been done, as well as the data regarding the degree of coverage, conectivity and land-use. The tipology of the rambla has been defined in base to a series of parameters and the main impacts detected on it, both natural and of anthropogenic origin, have been listed. The results show that the anthropogenic activities are those generating the highest number of impacts, being remarkable the traffic of vehicles, the abandonment of agricultural land and inappropiate activities of reforestation. The proposal here presented promotes a recovery at different levels: botanical, using the autochthonous species of the area; environmental, to minimize the existing impacts; ecological, maintaining its functionality of vector of transport of water, and landscaping, to return to the rambla all its value as characteristic element of arid zones.Departamento de Botánica. Facultad de Farmacia. Universidad de Granad

Woody Species Diversity, Community Structure, and Regeneration Capacity in Central Ethiopian Urban Forest Patches

Land cover change in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia’s capital, is driven by recurring drought and the economic problems of society-initiated afforestation. The goal of this study was to learn about the state of woody species regeneration in Yeka’s urban forest patches. Thirty plots (20 m x 20 m in size) were sampled to identify plants for this purposE. All wooden trees with a height greater than 1.3 m in each plot were identified, enumerated, and their diameter were measured. Acacia decurrens was determined to be the predominant species, with an importance value index (IVI) of 161.09, followed by Acacia melanoxlon (IVI = 44.69). The bootstrapping PERMANOVA test was used to show how the species in the community overlapped. The result reveals that dissimilarity is low (p > 0.05), which is supported by the assumption of multivariate dispersion homogeneity. The area’s generalized linear model (GLM) showed all species statistically significant for characteristics associated with closure year and presence of mature trees and the entire closure year. Two of the twenty tree species, i.e., Acacia decurrens and Acacia melanoxylon were found in nearly equal numbers in all three growth stages as well as having strong regenerating potential. The rapid expansion of exotic Acacia spp. necessitates careful attention to their regeneration. To reinforce and improve ecosystem services, conservation and restoration efforts should encourage the regeneration of native plant species

An Indicator-Based Approach to Assess the Readiness of Urban Forests for Future Challenges: Case Study of a Mediterranean Compact City

Urban Forests (UFs) are key elements in Mediterranean compact cities, as they provide numerous ecosystem benefits and increase the resilience of cities against the anticipated impacts of climate change. It is, thus, necessary to review all the aspects that may have a negative effect on their ecosystem functions and the services that they provide. In this paper, a set of indicators is proposed that allow for a preliminary evaluation of some of the main disservices and factors that Mediterranean UFs present and the ways to maximize their benefits for users. For this purpose, 20 indicators, divided into three categories—Biodiversity, Accessibility/Facilities, and Infrastructure— were selected. Within these three categories, a range of values was established, from low to high or absence/presence. The indicators were tested in 24 urban forests of different types, all of which are representative of a medium-sized compact Mediterranean city. The results highlight that the UFs have adequate species richness and diversity, but among the species present are quite a few that emit BVOCs and allergens, as well as some that have invasive behavior. Poor cleaning, absence of night lightning, and scarcity of water points are aspects to improve in a good number of UFs; while a high surface area of impermeable soil, low tree cover, and extensive areas of grass that require large amounts of water for maintenance are the main issues of the infrastructure block that need medium-term planning to be addressed. It can be concluded that the proposed set of indicators allows for a general assessment of the readiness of UFTs in Mediterranean cities for the upcoming climatic, social, and ecological challenges

Enhancing pollination ecosystem service in urban green areas: An opportunity for the conservation of pollinators

The rapid growing urbanization is one of the main threats to urban biodiversity and the ecosystem services (ES) that they provide. Pollination is one of the most affected ES in urban areas mainly due to the decline in urban green areas (UGAs) and other factors derived from urbanization itself. Considering this and the already existing global pollinator crisis, the aim of this work is the evaluation of urban green infrastructure as an opportunity for pollinator conservation. For that purpose, the ornamental vegetation of a medium-sized Mediterranean city (Granada, south-eastern Spain) was determined. The floral origin, phenology and floral traits of the conforming species and the pollinator species that they attract were analysed. Additionally, NMDS analysis were performed in order to determine if the “Pollination Syndromes” are a useful tool to actually predict the pollinator group attracted to a certain plant species. It was found that UGAs have huge potential for pollinator conservation as the major part of its ornamental species have an entomophilic pollination strategy. However, there is an imbalance in the availability of flower resources throughout the year. Hence, the addition of species flowering out of the main flowering season would be advisable in order to get a continuous supply of floral resources for pollinators. A current disproportion in the potentially attracted pollinator groups was also found out, being bees the predominantly attracted ones. However, results showed that the “Pollination Syndromes” are a tool with limitations at the moment and needs to be used with considerations. Thus, the specific plant-pollinator relationship should be determined through field work in each case-study. Further studies considering key factors such as urban connectivity and fragmentation would be desirable to ensure a comprehensive management for urban pollinators.Ministry of Education and Professional Training, Government of Spain, FPU2019,Spanish Government RTI2018-101154-A-100University of Granada, Programa Operativo FEDER Andalucia 2014-2020 B-RNM-474-UGR18 A-RNM-430-UGR2

Effects of Environmental Stress on the Pollen Viability of Ornamental Tree-Species in the City of Granada (South-Eastern Spain)

Atmospheric conditions, as well as pollutants, can induce changes in the viability and germinability of the pollen grain. This process frequently occurs in cities due to the high rate of air pollution that can alter the quality of pollen, affecting its biological functions. In this work, the effect of different environmental stress factors, mainly UV-B radiation and polluting gases (CO, NO2 and SO2), on the viability and maturity of the pollen of four ornamental tree-species present in the green infrastructure of Granada, namely Acer negundo, Carpinus betulus, Olea europaea and Cupressus spp. is analyzed. Differential staining techniques were used with fresh pollen collected in areas with different exposure to environmental stress to detect intact cell membranes (Trypan blue) and the state of maturity (Pyrogallol red). It was observed that the species from sectors more exposed to environmental stress registered a low viability and were affected by factors such as UV-B radiation and atmospheric pollutants. On the contrary, the pollen from tree species growing in peri-urban forests presented a higher rate of viability and less effect of pollutant factors. Differences were also observed according to the species/genus and according to the sampling area. This modification in the morphological and/or organic composition of the pollen wall may cause a loss of quality in the reproductive processes of plants, and it may be bioindicator of the process of progressive degradation that plant species can experience in urban environments under conditions of environmental stress, and prevent the impacts that can affect other species

The Influence of Individual-Specific Plant Parameters and Species Composition on the Allergenic Potential of Urban Green Spaces

Green planning focusses on specific site requirements such as temperature tolerance or aesthetics as crucial criteria in the choice of plants. The allergenicity of plants, however, is often neglected. Cariñanos et al. (2014; Landscape and Urban Planning, 123: 134–144) developed the Urban Green Zone Allergenicity Index (IUGZA) that considers a variety of plant characteristics to calculate the allergenic potential of urban green spaces. Based on this index, we calculated an index for the individual-specific allergenic potential (IISA) that accounts for a varying foliage volume by accurate measurements of crown heights and surface areas occupied by each tree and only included mature individuals. The studied park, located in Eichstätt, Germany, has an area of 2.2 ha and consists of 231 trees. We investigated the influence of species composition using six planting scenarios and analysed the relationship between allergenic potential and species diversity using Shannon index. Only a small number of trees was female and therefore characterised as non-allergenic, 9% of the trees were classified as sources of main local allergens. The allergenic potential of the park based on literature values for crown height and surface was IUGZA = 0.173. Applying our own measurements resulted in IISA = 0.018. The scenarios indicated that replacing trees considered as sources of main local allergens has the strongest impact on the park’s allergenic potential. The IUGZA offers an easy way to assess the allergenic potential of a park by the use of a few calculations. The IISA reduces the high influence of the foliage volume but there are constraints in practicability and in speed of the analysis. Although our study revealed that a greater biodiversity was not necessarily linked to lower index values, urban green planning should focus on biodiversity for ameliorating the allergenic potential of parks.We gratefully acknowledge the support of the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (FENOMED CGL2014-54731-R)