Assessment of the landscape characteristics of the habitat of wild elephants in Sri Lanka

For the long term conservation of wild elephants in Sri Lanka, information on landscape characteristics i.e. where and what landscape support the population of wild elephants is vital. Though there have been several studies on the biology, distribution and habitat preferences of elephant in the past yet landscape characters have not been considered any detail. Hence the present study was done using 5X5km grid overlaid on 1:50000 scale land use maps of the country covering the historic elephant range in Sri Lanka. In 2011, each of the 25 km2 cell was covered by interviewing knowledgeable forest communities and wildlife officers as a reliable source of information on presence and absent of elephants in the area. Vegetation types, terrain, water availability and road densities & human population densities were recognized as landscape characteristics. The study was focused to assess correlation among landscape characters and elephant presence. Elephants occupied >30% of Sri Lanka‟s land area with approximately 40% being contained within protected areas where human access is regulated. Elephant range was largely contiguous except for a few isolated forest areas. However the large portion of elephant range is not protected. Prevalence of monsoonal forest and mosaic of different vegetation types were the strongest positive predictors of elephant presence. Road density and human population density were significant negative predictors. That the elephant populations had increased was the common perception among 78% of respondents. Although 36% of respondents regarded elephants as a threat, 93% support their legal protection. This positive attitude toward protection would facilitate conservation efforts. Establishment of additional protected areas and forest connectivity through implementing proper land use plans in areas where the elephants are present would enhance elephant conservation. In addition to that further studies could be implemented to plan for the maintenance of viable population of wild elephants in Sri Lanka

IMPACT OF SAMBAR DEER(Cervus unicoior unicoior) ON THE VEGETATION AT THE HORTON PLAINS NATIONAL PARK

A survey was carried out at the Horton Plains National Park to investigate the influenceof sambar deer on grassland and fares' vegetation. The method adopted was, comparisonof the dominant grassland communities and seedlings in the forested areas with andwithout the effect of deer. Three enclosures (20 m x 5 m) were erected in the grasslandand four enclosures (20 In x 15 m) were erected in the forest to serve as controls (nograzing). Similar areas adjoining the plots were marked with pegs as test areas (withgrazing). Field surveys were carried ou. during the years 1997 and 1998. Incidence andextent of bark damage by sambar deer \Y<JS also examined using a scoring method on sixtransects each measuring 250 lJ1. GSN (Grazing Susceptibility Number) was used as anindicator of the the phytosociological behaviour of sambar in the grassland SummedDominance Ratio (SDR)) was used to calculate the GSN. During the months of January,March. July and October 1997, GSN values for dominant species in the grassland vizPennicetum and Chrysopogon were 184,20,23.75, -3.06 and 18.6,8.1, 17.23, 19.0respectively. The minus GSN value of ).06 indicates that during October Pcnnicctumgrass was not damaged by deer which coincided with the flowering period of thatspecies. Grazing presusure values obtained during the periods July-Sep 97, Sep-Nov 97 .Nov-Jan 98, Jan-Mar 98 for Pennicetum and Chrysopogon were 17, 5.6, -17.6, 5.8 andI, I I, -0.5, 0.9 respectively. Here the minus values indicates heavy grazing. During theperiods of less rain and also during peak lactation periods of sambar, the grazingpressure is high (July-September and November-January) compared to positive values ofgrazing pressure which coincides well with the comparatively high rainfall periods Studiesof the forest vegetation revealed that after a period of two years (1997-1999) 88'% ofseedlings survived (N=1499) in the enclosure but only 73% of the seedlings survived(N= 1488) in the open area. Bark damage is distinct on plants like Cinnamomumovalifolium, Neolitsea fucata, Calopiiyllum walkeri, Eurya japonica, Eleocarpussubvillosus, Syzigium revolutum and rJedyotis lawsoniae all of which have high IV)(Importance Value Indices). Trees with average gbh 28 cm and average height 7 m weremore prone to damage by deer. Only S% of a total of 921 trees were dead due to barkdamage

Strategies of protected area use by Asian elephants in relation to motivational state and social affiliations

Animals’ space requirements may vary according to life-history and social considerations. We observed 516 wild adult Asian elephants from both sexes, over 9 years, to investigate how life-history traits and social behavior influence protected-area (PA) use at Udawalawe National Park, Sri Lanka. Male PA-use, quantified in terms of average between-sightings-interval (BSI), was significantly influenced by the interaction of age class and motivational state (i.e. reproduction vs. foraging). Musth lengthened with age, with a median of 24.5 days for ages 21–30, 32.5 days for ages 31–40, and 45 days for those \u3e 40. A minority (11%) used it exclusively during musth, while others used it exclusively for foraging (44%) or both (45%). Males using it in both states and older musth-only males were more likely to be seen across years. There were 16 social communities containing between 2–22 adult females. Females’ BSI was significantly influenced by social ties, but this relationship was weak, because members of social communities do not necessarily disperse together, resulting in high individual variation in space-use. Inter-annual variability in sightings among individuals of both sexes indicates that around ¾ of the population is likely non-residential across years, challenging the prevailing fortress-conservation paradigm of wildlife management

BEHAVIOR OF Ceratophora tennentii GUNTHER, 1834 IN RELATION TO AMBIENT TEMPERATURE IN A SELECTED HABITAT IN KNUCKLES FOREST RANGE OF SRllANKA

A research was conducted in the eastern slope of the northern flank of the Knuckles forestrange for a period of 3 months from March - June 2002 with the objective of studying thegeneral behavior of C. tennentii related to the ambient temperature. Data was collected fora period of 10 days between 0800 to 1800 hrs using focal sampling method. Juvenile (1),male (M) and female (F) lizards were observed and the ambient temperature or thesubstrate used in the habitat Was recorded. An average temperature in the study sitefluctuated from 16.80DC in the morning, H.2SDC at noon and 16.25DC in the evening.Activity of all lizards was high around noon (1100-1300 hrs) and it was observed that theyare relatively inactive in the morning and evening when the ambient temperatures wereminimum. All the groups spent more time on resting (1 = 50.83%, M = 42% and F =55.83(10). The most preferred substrates were tree trunks and cardamom plants (J = 34.3%,33.5%; M = 37.3%, 28.2%; F = n5%, 32.2% respectively). It can be concluded that thegeneral behavior of C. tennentii correlates with the ambient temperature where a highdegree of activity was observed during the daytime. The optimum range could be 20°C-24DC for captive management of these lizards. They preferred substrates exposed tosunlight such as tree trunks and cardamom plants where there were numerous insectsduring the flowering season

DIVERSITY OF AVIFAUNA IN DIFFERENT HABITATS OF THE WASGOMUWA NATIONAL PARK

Wasgomuwa National Park (WNP) is the fourth largest National Park in Sri Lanka.Location of this protected area in between the intenoediate zone and dry zone has ~resulted in a mixture of vegetation types. The main objectives of this study were todetermine the avifaunal diversity, distribution, and abundance in different habitats, andprovide infonoation for the scientific management of the WNP.The survey was carried out at 5 different habitats; grassland, scrubland, riverine forest,and tank. Birds were recorded along a line transect covering 150 X 100 m, with tworeplicates per habitat. Direct observations as well as bird calls were used to confino theexistence of birds in the study sites. Birds were recorded at three different time framesduring the day and each habitat was covered on 21 occasions during the 03 months fieldstudy. TIle species diversity was analyzed under three categories: species richness indices(Margalefs diversity index, Menhinick's index), species abundance model and indicesbased OD the proportional abundances (Shannon diversity index, Simpson's index) ofspecies.The vegetation of each habitat was described by drawing vegetation profiles.A total of 114 species, belonging to 43 families were recorded from the WNP, during thestudy period. These included 4 endemic species, and 6 species of nationally threatenedbirds. The total number of birds recorded in the study habitats was 4752. The mostdominant order was Passerifomes, represented by 41 species in 19 families. Highestnumber of species was recorded in the riverine habitat and lowest number in thegrassland habitat. The highest number of individual birds was recorded in the tankhabitat and lowest number of individuals was recorded in the grassland habitat. A diurnalvariation of the existence of birds was observed in every habitat. Highest number ofspecies and individual birds were recorded in the morning time frame. The ShannonDiversity index was highest in the riverine habitat and lowest in the grassland habitat.There was a significant difference in diversity among study habitatsThis study helped to expand the checklist of birds in the WNP with four new speciesrecords. It was revealed that a mosaic of habitats contribute to an increased avifaunaldiversity as well as their abundance. Therefore to maintain and enrich the bird diversityin a protected area, the wildlife managers should give high priority to conserve andenhance the habitat diversity.

DIVERSITY OF AVIFAUNA IN DIFFERENT HABITATS OF THE WASGOMUWA NATIONAL PARK

Wasgomuwa National Park (WNP) is the fourth largest National Park in Sri Lanka.Location of this protected area in between the intenoediate zone and dry zone has ~resulted in a mixture of vegetation types. The main objectives of this study were todetermine the avifaunal diversity, distribution, and abundance in different habitats, andprovide infonoation for the scientific management of the WNP.The survey was carried out at 5 different habitats; grassland, scrubland, riverine forest,and tank. Birds were recorded along a line transect covering 150 X 100 m, with tworeplicates per habitat. Direct observations as well as bird calls were used to confino theexistence of birds in the study sites. Birds were recorded at three different time framesduring the day and each habitat was covered on 21 occasions during the 03 months fieldstudy. TIle species diversity was analyzed under three categories: species richness indices(Margalefs diversity index, Menhinick's index), species abundance model and indicesbased OD the proportional abundances (Shannon diversity index, Simpson's index) ofspecies.The vegetation of each habitat was described by drawing vegetation profilesA total of 114 species, belonging to 43 families were recorded from the WNP, during thestudy period. These included 4 endemic species, and 6 species of nationally threatenedbirds. The total number of birds recorded in the study habitats was 4752. The mostdominant order was Passerifomes, represented by 41 species in 19 families. Highestnumber of species was recorded in the riverine habitat and lowest number in thegrassland habitat. The highest number of individual birds was recorded in the tankhabitat and lowest number of individuals was recorded in the grassland habitat. A diurnalvariation of the existence of birds was observed in every habitat. Highest number ofspecies and individual birds were recorded in the morning time frame. The ShannonDiversity index was highest in the riverine habitat and lowest in the grassland habitat.There was a significant difference in diversity among study habitats.This study helped to expand the checklist of birds in the WNP with four new speciesrecords. It was revealed that a mosaic of habitats contribute to an increased avifaunaldiversity as well as their abundance. Therefore to maintain and enrich the bird diversityin a protected area, the wildlife managers should give high priority to conserve andenhance the habitat diversity

COMPOSITION, STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION OF MIXED-SPECIES BIRD FLOCKS IN WALAUWA TTA-WA TURANA SWAMP FOREST, KALUTARA DISTRICT, WESTERN PROVINCE OF SRI LANKA

Mixed- species foraging bird flocks in Walauwatta-Waturan Swamp Forest (WWSF) were studiedfor a period of six months from February to July in 2001. Field data was collected from 07:00 to18:00 hrs and flocks were followed as long as possible to record their composition. Scan samplingmethod (Altman, 1975) was used to record their behavioural activity, height of feeding, feedingsite and the role of each individual within the flock. Two minute scan samples were done with fiveminute intervals and almost all the birds participating in the flock were scanned within the twominutes time period.The flocking tendency of birds in WWSF was 28.7% and 27 flocks were studied. A total of 31 birdspecies were recorded to participate in mixed-species flocks in WWSF. These include 28 residentand 3 migrate species. Five species were endemic to Sri Lanka. The flock composition varied from3 to 15 species (5.89±2.61) and 4 to 31 individuals (I2.96±7.41). There was a positive correlationbetween the number of species and ~ock size (r= 0.796).Crested Drongo (77.78%) and Black-naped Monarch (70.37%) were the most frequent birds foundin flocks while Sri Lanka Orange-billed Babbler was the most abundant (8.78±3.67 individuals perflock). Territorial species such as Purple-romped Sunbird joined the flock when it was passingthrough their territory. Birds in mixed-species flocks in WWSF were classified as nuclear species,lead species, regular species, and occasional species. 2 major nuclear species (Crested Drongo &Sri Lanka Orange-billed Babbler), 4 lead species (Above two with Malabar Trogon and AsianParadise Flycatcher), 12 regular species, and IS occasional species were identified. Associations ofbird species participating in mixed species flocks in WWSF were studied using cluster analysis.Two main clusters could be identified, one of which could be again divided into two subassociations.The first cluster comprised of Crested Drongo and Black-naped Monarch who showedthe highest level of association. Black Bulbul and Sri Lanka Orange-billed Babbler could not bepooled into any clusters.Different species in mixed species flocks had different optimum height levels of movementthrough the forest and appeared to have characteristic feeding sites. The vertical distribution of theregular species in flocks was consistent. Sri Lanka Orange-billed Babbler was found at a widerange of foraging heights. But, Scarlet Minivet and Black Bulbul were observed mostly in thecanopy and the Crested Drongo was observed in the middle strata of the forest (10 to 20 ft). TheAsian Paradise Flycatcher was observed in the same range. However, other fly catching species(Black-naped Monarch and Tickell's Blue flycatcher) were observed mostly in the 10 to 15ftvertical range. There was an extensive overlap of height ranges between some species. But theywere observed to use different activity/feeding sites. Black-naped Monarch and Velvet-frontedBlue Nuthatch were found in the same height range, but feeding sites utilized by them wasdifferent (foliage and tree trunk respectively). Crested Drongo and Asian Paradise Flycatcher wereobserved to occupy the same vertical height range and feeding sites, but they were using differentfeeding techniques. Even being a small area of 12 ha (CEA, 1994) IIWTOUIIdedby Rubber plantations and homegardens, the Swamp Forest have a considerable flocking tendency with compared to Sinharaja Forest Reserve 30%)(Kotagama et. AI., 1986) and Knuckles Conservation Forest (30.S) (Sbriyani, 2000), thus worth conserve thehabitat

BEHAVIOUR OF JUVENILE ASIAN ELEPHANTS IN Panicum maximum DOMINA TED GRASSLANDS IN THE UDA WALA WA NATIONAL PARK.

Guinea grass (Panicum maximum) dominated grasslands, a major habitat typein the Udawalawa National Park, is frequently occupied by wild elephants.Behaviour of juvenile elephants (4-6 years old) inhabiting the habitat wasstudied from April 2004 to March 2005. Focal animal sampling was employedto quantify behaviour and total time of observation was 3100 minutes.The activity budget of the juveniles comprised of ten behaviour patterns;feeding (44%), resting (24%), locomotion (19%), play (5%), comfort (5%),drinking, social, exploratory, agonistic and anxious. Maximum feeding (55%)and minimum resting (13%) were recorded during late afternoons (1500-1800hrs) whilst maximum resting (37%) and minimum feeding (29%) wererecorded during late mornings (0900-1200 hrs). Locomotion and otherbehaviour patterns did not significantly vary with time. Time spent on feedingwas higher in wet months (47%) than in dry months (39%). Resting wasrelatively higher in dry period (27%) than in wet (21 %). P. maximum was themajor food type consumed throughout the year while they fed on native grassesand herbs to a lesser extent (21-29%). Significant correlations between ambienttemperature and time spent on feeding (r= -0.716) and resting (r = +0.751)were evident.The Department of Wildlife Conservation and the Born Free Foundation, UKare acknowledged.

COMMUNICATION: THE MISSING LINK IN CONSERVATION

Following global trends, modern conservation in Sri Lanka is veering away from policing and preservation, and is encouraging sustainable use and emphasizing public awareness and participation.Nonetheless, on-the-ground progress in conservation has not been adequate. This slow progress can be attributed to many factors including financial constraints, lack of motivation within and lack of coordination between agencies. It is proposed that one of the most fundamental reasons for the dragging pace of conservation is the lack of communication between biologists (the producers of information) on the one hand and the users of biological resources and decision makers (the receivers of the information) on the other. The core of the problem is that scientists are trained to stimulate the intellect and to formulate testable hypotheses, use statistical analyses and objectively report results. Scientists are not trained to evoke emotion, to dramatize, to surprise or to entice the public with their results. Above all, they are not trained to provoke a response in the form of action.The goal in this paper is to open the eyes and minds of conservation biologists to effective communication and to emphasize the need, in effect, to advertise and market these messages to elicit a response from the public. Communication is defined in terms of marketing and advertising as a process by which a producer sends a message to a receiver who responds to that message, i.e. there is feedback to the producer. It is a process of exchange. There are six main steps in an effective communication strategy: 1) Identification of the main problem and formulation of the goal; 2) Definition of measurable objectives; 3) Research on facts; 4) Identification of target groups (market segmentation); 5) Development of a communication strategy (formation of marketing and advertising plans); 6) Evaluation of goal(s).This paper merely introduces the basic concepts and tools of a communication strategy. That effective conservation can only be achieved through effective communication is reiterated. Once this link is made and enriched, conservation biology will be a truly multidisciplinary science

ESTIMATING THE ABUNDANCE OF SAMBAR DEER(Cervus unicolor unicolor) AT THE HORTON PLAINS NATIONAL PARK Of SRI LANKA

A study was conducted during the period 1997-2000 to estimate the sambar population atthe Horton Plains National Park of Sri Lanka using direct and indirect method. Vehiclebased spot light technique was used as the direct method and fecal accumulation methodwas used as the indirect method. The defecation rate of sambar used in the indirect methodwas estimated by, a study carried out in the National Zoological Garden Dchiwala, usingeight-penned sambar. The mean defecation rate of sambar deer [or the eight focal samplingat the Zoological Garden - Dehiwala was twenty-one pellet groups / sambar/ day (range =20,17- 30). Results of ANOVA revealed that there is a significant variation in defecationrate with age (P< 0.05, Sig-0.02) but it is not significant sex (P< 0.05, Sig-0.09).Altogether 688 transects were run for the direct method. For the indirect method, 200quadrats measuring 25m*25m size were sampled. Standard equations were used [or thepopulation analysis. The estimated sambar population, crude density and ecological densityof the direct and indirect methods are 2102.5=Bl845, 66.5Ikm2, 223.5Ikm2 and3154=B 11096, 98.9km2, 350lkm2 respectively.Results indicated that the values obtained by the indirect method are higher than the valuesobtained [rom the direct method. The reliability of the indirect method depends on theactual daily defecation rate of sambar deer, which depends on the habitat use. Directmethods are more reliable but not feasible at all times. However indirect method can beused to obtain information on population trends. The results of this study indicate anincrease in sambar deer population at the Horton Plains National Park when comparedwith estimates made in 1991.