Evolutionary processes and the origin of crop plants

A evolução das plantas cultivadas, que teve início há cerca de 13.000 anos, está sujeita aos mesmos processos evolutivos naturais, aliada à ação do homem de forma consciente ou inconsciente, levando à domesticação. Nesta revisão, são apresentados os principais fatores evolutivos, tais como mutação, hibridação, migração, seleção e deriva genética, que, de alguma maneira, estão envolvidos com a origem, evolução e domesticação de plantas cultivadas. São apresentados também exemplos de como esses processos influenciaram na diversidade intra e interespecífica de plantas cultivadas, com o aparecimento de novas variedades ou mesmo de novas espécies. De modo geral, tais processos atuaram na ampliação, na manutenção, bem como na redução da variabilidade genética das plantas cultivadas.The evolution of crop plants, which began at about 13,000 years ago, is subject to the same natural evolutionary processes, coupled with the action of man, consciously or unconsciously, leading to domestication. This review presents the main evolutionary factors such as mutation, hybridization, migration, selection and genetic drift, which somehow are involved in the origin, evolution and domestication of crop plants. Examples of how these processes influenced in the intra and interespecific diversity of crop plants, with the uprise of new varieties or even of new species, are also presented. In general, these processes have worked well in the increase, maintenance, as well as in the reduction of genetic diversity of crop plants

EVALUATION OF CADMIUM TOLERANCE IN TOMATO (Solanum lycopersicum L.)

A tolerância ao Cádmio (Cd) é um assunto de relevada importância, devido aos vários problemas que este metal pode causar para a agricultura, levando à queda de produção e perda da qualidade dos alimentos, representando, também, riscos à saúde humana pelo consumo de produtos contaminados com esse metal. Neste trabalho, fizemos um estudo geral sobre a tolerância ao Cd em plantas de tomateiro, partindo de 3 abordagens complementares, onde geramos variabilidade genética por meio de mutagênese usando um tomateiro modelo (cultivar Micro-Tom); exploramos uma pequena fração da variabilidade genética da espécie para identificar genótipos com diferentes graus de tolerância ao Cd e, finalmente, realizamos estudos ligados ao metabolismo oxidativo de duas cultivares selecionadas, sendo uma sensível e outra mais tolerante a este metal. Este trabalho nos conduziu também ao desenvolvimento e adaptação de metodologias para a avaliação e seleção de plantas tolerantes a metais pesados, dentre as quais propomos a utilização de um Índice de Tolerância adequado para avaliar cultivares morfologicamente diferentes. Por fim, os resultados obtidos neste trabalho possibilitaram uma visão geral sobre os parâmetros de tolerância ao Cd em plantas de tomateiro, bem como o estudo dos principais padrões de resposta no metabolismo oxidativo de genótipos mais sensíveis e mais tolerantes a este metal.Tolerance to heavy metal Cadmium (Cd) is an important subject because this metal can cause several problems in agriculture, such as decrease in production and loss of food quality, representing risks to human health by consumption of vegetables contaminated with this metal. In this research, we studied Cd-tolerance in tomato plants, using three complementary approaches, generating genetic variability by mutagenesis using a tomato model (cultivar Micro-Tom), exploring a small fraction of the genetic variability of species to identify genotypes with different degrees of Cd-tolerance and, finally, we conducted studies related to the oxidative metabolism of two cultivars, with low and high tolerance to this metal. Additionally, this work results in the development and adaptation of methodologies for the evaluation and selection of tolerant plants to heavy metals. Then, we propose an appropriate Tolerance Index to evaluate morphologically different cultivars. In conclusion, the results of this study are an overview of the parameters of Cd-tolerance in tomato plants, as well as the study of the some patterns of response in the oxidative metabolism of genotypes more sensitive and more tolerant to this metal

Exploring natural genetic variation from wild species related to tomato in the Micro-Tom model (Solanum lycopersicum L. cv Micro-Tom)

As espécies selvagens relacionadas ao tomateiro desenvolveram-se em uma ampla gama de latitudes que compreende o sul do Equador ao norte do Chile, ocupando diferentes habitats e constituindo uma fonte de diversidade genética natural. Essa diversidade tem sido utilizada no melhoramento de tomateiro, sobretudo para introgressão de genes de resistência a patógenos e mais recentemente de genes afetando a qualidade dos frutos. Embora a variação genética natural tenha a relevância de algo que foi selecionado na natureza e que pode ter implicações evolutivas, ela ainda é pouco explorada em estudos básicos. Para o uso intensivo desse recurso é necessário lançar mão de cruzamentos e retrocruzamentos em larga escala entre as espécies selvagens e o tomateiro cultivado (Solanum lycopersicum). Para tanto, dispomos de uma cultivar miniatura de tomateiro, a cv Micro-Tom (MT), a qual pode crescer nas mesmas condições requeridas para a planta modelo Arabidopsis thaliana. Com o uso da cv MT, podemos explorar de forma adequada a variação genética natural das espécies selvagens de tomateiro, sendo que a identificação de alterações fenotípicas é muito mais evidente quando podemos visualizar a planta como um todo. Dessa forma, vários alelos ainda não conhecidos foram resgatados dessas espécies, os quais levam a fenótipos distintos daqueles encontrados nos parentais, tais como frutos cor rosa-salmão vindo de S. neorickii, frutos de superfície opaca vindo de S. chmielewskii e frutos de coloração verde escuro vindo de S. galapagense. Esse modelo parece ser de especial importância para isolar genes de efeito maior. Assim, isolamos um locus vindo de S. pimpinellifolium que aumenta o número de flores por inflorescência da cv MT de 7 para 11. Sendo o tomateiro uma planta cultivada, os alelos oriundos das espécies selvagens, além de úteis para estudos genéticos e fisiológicos, podem ser aproveitados em programas de pré-melhoramento.Tomato wild species evolved in a wide range of latitudes, from the south of Ecuador to the north of Chile, which comprise different habitats and are a source of natural genetic variation. This diversity is commonly used in tomato breeding, especially for the introgression of genes for resistance to pathogens and, recently, for fruit quality. Although natural genetic variation usually has an adaptive significance, which means that it may have evolutionary implications, it is still poorly explored in basic research. For the intensive utilization of this resource, it is necessary to perform large scale crosses and backcrosses between wild species and cultivated tomato. Aiming to this purpose, we used the miniature tomato cultivar, cv Micro-Tom (MT), which can growth in the same minimum requirements of the Arabidopsis thaliana model. Using MT one can adequately explore the natural genetic variation of wild species with less time and space requirements. In addiction, phenotypical alterations are more evident in MT, since one can easily visualize the whole plant. Thus, alleles hitherto unknown were isolated from tomato wild related species, leading to distinct phenotypes, such as pink-salmon fruits from S. neorickii, opaque fruit surface from S. chmielewskii and dark green fruits from S. galapagense. The MT model seems to be particularly adequate for the isolation of major genes and QTLs of great effects. Thereby, we had isolated a S. pimpinellifolium locus that increases the number of flowers per inflorescence, from 7 to 11, in MT. Being the tomato a cultivated plant, the alleles obtained in the wild species, besides to be useful for genetic and physiological studies, can be used in pre-breeding programs

Base genética do hábito de crescimento e florescimento em tomateiro e sua importância na agricultura Genetic basis of growth habit and flowering in tomato and its importance in agriculture

Variedades ou híbridos de tomateiro utilizados para produção de molhos e ketchups costumam ter hábito determinado, enquanto a maioria dos genótipos utilizados na produção para mesa (consumo in natura) possuem hábito indeterminado. Além de influenciar no manejo da cultura, o hábito de crescimento pode alterar parâmetros de produtividade, como o teor de sólidos solúveis totais (SST) nos frutos. O hábito de crescimento é controlado principalmente pelo gene SELF-PRUNING (SP), que é um dos componentes de uma pequena família gênica da qual faz parte também o gene SINGLE FLOWER TRUSS (SFT), atualmente considerado um dos componentes do tão buscado "florígeno". O entendimento da função bioquímica e o efeito fisiológico de tais genes em interação com o ambiente e outros genes (epistasia) possibilita a manipulação de parâmetros como precocidade e SST. Além disso, fornece subsídios para compreender a base genética do crescimento semideterminado, que combina vantagens do hábito determinado e indeterminado, podendo ser usado pelos melhoristas de plantas para o desenvolvimento de novas cultivares.<br>Hybrids or open pollinated tomato cultivars used for sauces and ketchups production usually has determinate growth habit, while most of the genotypes used in the production to salads (in natura consumption) has indeterminate growth habit. Additionally, growth habit can have influence on culture management, productivity and total soluble solids (TSS) in fruits. The growth habit is mainly controlled by the gene SELF-PRUNING (SP), which is a component of a small gene family which is also part of the gene SINGLE FLOWER TRUSS (SFT), currently considered one of the components so sought after 'florigin'. Understanding the biochemical function and physiological effect of such genes in interaction with the environment and other genes (epistasis), allows the manipulation of parameters such as precocity and TSS. It also provides subsidies to understand the genetic basis of semideterminate growth, which combines the advantages of determinate and indeterminate habit and can be used for plant breeders to development of new cultivars

Use of non-hyperaccumulator plant species for the phytoextraction of heavy metals using chelating agents

Soil contamination by heavy metals is a challenge faced by many countries, and engineering technologies to solve this problem are expensive and can cause negative impacts on the environment. One way to minimise the levels of heavy metals in the soil is to use plants that can absorb and accumulate heavy metals into harvestable parts, a process called phytoextraction. Typical plant species used in research involving phytoextraction are heavy metal hyperaccumulators, but plants from this group are not good biomass producers and grow more slowly than most species; thus, they have an important role in helping scientists understand the mechanisms involved in accumulating high amounts of heavy metals without developing symptoms or dying. However, because of their slow growth, it is not practical to use these species for phytoextraction. An alternative approach is to use non-hyperaccumulator plants assisted by chelating agents, which may improve the ability of plants to accumulate more heavy metals than they would naturally. Chelating agents can be synthetic or organic acids, and the advantages and disadvantages of their use in improving the phytoextraction potential of non-hyperaccumulator plants are discussed in this article. We hope to draw attention to ways to improve the phytoextraction potential of non-hyperaccumulator plants that produce a large amount of biomass and to stimulate more research on phytoextraction-inducing substances

Interspecific xenia and metaxenia in seeds and fruits of tomato

Xenia, the transmission of traits from the pollinizer to the female's tissues, is a phenomenon hitherto unknown in tomatoes. Here, we describe xenia effects on the seeds and fruits of Solanum lycopersicum, the tomato, elicited by S. galapagense. The wild tomatoes, such as S. galapagense, have highly pilose fruit surface and minute seeds, unlike the domesticated species. Crossings between S. galapagense (pollinizer) and two large-seeded, glabrous cultivars of S. lycopersicum (females) tested the former's ability to raise the trichome density and trichome-to-1000-cell ratio and to reduce the seed weight in the latter's fruits. Selfed fruits of the two cultivars, Micro-Tom and Pusa Ruby, were compared to the crossed fruits. The pollen of S. galapagense was able to raise pilosity and to reduce seed weight in the crossed fruits of both cultivars, but with different magnitudes: seed reduction was more intense in Pusa Ruby, while pilosity increase was greater in Micro-Tom, both of which characterize xenia. Pilosity increase is not completely dependent on variation in epidermal cell density, which displayed no xenia effect. The difference between the maternal cultivars in the magnitude of pilosity increase may be due to the higher dilution of a putative male chemical signal (either hormone or RNA) in the larger fruits of Pusa Ruby. However, one cannot use the signal diffusion hypothesis to explain the xenia effects on seed weight

Anatomical analysis of peach palm (Bactris gasipaes) leaves cultivated in vitro, ex vitro and in vivo

(Anatomical analysis of peach palm (Bactris gasipaes) leaves cultivated in vitro, ex vitro and in vivo). The present work characterized and compared the anatomical structures of the leaves of Bactris gasipaes (Arecaceae) plants grown under different cultivation conditions (in vitro, ex vitro and in vivo) with the goal of identifying the origins of the difficulties encountered in acclimatizing micro-plants. The Quant program was used to determine leaf tissue thicknesses and areas, and histochemical tests were performed on leaf sections and analyzed using light microscopy. Stomatal and trichome densities were determined using the epidermal impression method and by scanning electronic microscopy. Our results indicated that there were no discernible alterations of the anatomical characteristics of the leaves of micro-plants cultivated under differing conditions and that the thickening of the mesophyll and the vascular fibers indicated adaptive responses to ex vitro conditions. As such, the observed difficulties in acclimatizing peach palm micro-plants to ex vitro conditions cannot be attributed to plant anatomical characteristics acquired during in vitro cultivation

Use of non-hyperaccumulator plant species for the phytoextraction of heavy metals using chelating agents

Soil contamination by heavy metals is a challenge faced by many countries, and engineering technologies to solve this problem are expensive and can cause negative impacts on the environment. One way to minimise the levels of heavy metals in the soil is to use plants that can absorb and accumulate heavy metals into harvestable parts, a process called phytoextraction. Typical plant species used in research involving phytoextraction are heavy metal hyperaccumulators, but plants from this group are not good biomass producers and grow more slowly than most species; thus, they have an important role in helping scientists understand the mechanisms involved in accumulating high amounts of heavy metals without developing symptoms or dying. However, because of their slow growth, it is not practical to use these species for phytoextraction. An alternative approach is to use non-hyperaccumulator plants assisted by chelating agents, which may improve the ability of plants to accumulate more heavy metals than they would naturally. Chelating agents can be synthetic or organic acids, and the advantages and disadvantages of their use in improving the phytoextraction potential of non-hyperaccumulator plants are discussed in this article. We hope to draw attention to ways to improve the phytoextraction potential of non-hyperaccumulator plants that produce a large amount of biomass and to stimulate more research on phytoextraction-inducing substances