Transportation of horses and the implications for health and welfare

The equine industry is essential to the social and economic wellbeing of Australia, generating approximately $9 billion annually. Transportation is a crucial component of horse management, but there are serious welfare concerns and economic losses associated with transport-related health and behavioural problems. To try to prevent these problems the Australian Code of Land Transportation was published in 2012 with new standards and guidelines based on the most recent research. However, since the Code appeared no new research has been reported and there is no idea as to how the industry complies with the Code. The current literature only reports on epidemiological studies that affect the welfare of horses travelling to abattoirs. They do not consider what best practices should be applied and why horses develop disease after travelling (Chapter 1). Thus, while the physical and physiological stressors of each phase of transportation have been deeply described, there are still many gaps of knowledge on the impacts of transportation on horse health and welfare (Chapter 1). The aim of this thesis was to fill some of these gaps of knowledge collecting data from the Australian transport industry and improving the understanding of the implications for performance horse health and welfare arising from transportation by road. The hypothesis for the first part of the thesis was that there would be an association between the transport management and the development of transport-related behavioural and health problems during and after journeys. In order to address this, an epidemiological study and a questionnaire were undertaken. The epidemiological study aimed to investigate the incidence of transport-related diseases and risk factors for performance horses during a long journey (form Perth to Sydney). Only 3% of horses developed a transport-related disease and journey duration (>20 hours) and season (spring) were identified as risk factors (Chapter 2). The questionnaire explored the most common transport practices and issues in Australia across the different sectors of the equine industry. It was found that 67% of the respondents had experienced a transport-related problem moving their horses over the past two years and that equine transportation management was often not compliant with the Australian Code (Chapter 3.1). Significant associations between the transport management and the development of transport-related health problem were identified. Transport-related injuries were associated with the age of the horse keeper and the use of sedation and protective equipment pre-journey; diarrhoea and heat stroke were more likely to happen in journeys organised by amateurs than professionals (Chapter 3.2). Significant associations were also found between training procedures and transport-related problem behaviours: habituation and self-loading techniques reduced the risk of problem behaviours and subsequent injuries, but they were applied only by 20.2% and 10.8% of respondents (Chapter 3.3). Analysing 214 of transported-related health cases, respiratory diseases was the most frequently reported in Australia and journeys longer than 24 hours were seen to increase the risk for the development of a severe transport-related health problem (gastrointestinal and respiratory problems or death) (Chapter 3.4). Overall, the questionnaire highlighted the need for new welfare indicators, in particular for horses moved over long distances and for identifying horses at risk of respiratory diseases. In order to address this need, the second part of the thesis was composed of two multidisciplinary studies, exploring the effects of a four day journey and of an eight hour journey on horse health and welfare, with particular emphasis on the immunological and respiratory systems (Chapters 4 and 5). The four day journey was associated with changes in the clinical examination, an acute phase response, impaired lymphocyte proliferation, dehydration and a mobilisation of antioxidants. The results supported the hypothesis that a horse’s immunological capacity would be decreased after a long distance transportation predisposing to the development of more severe diseases (Chapter 4). The hypothesis of Chapter 5 was that stress related behavioural and physiological responses to transport would be associated with changes in clinical, haematological, oxidative and respiratory parameters. The tested eight hour journey without water and feed induced an acute phase response, dehydration, mobilisation of antioxidant, fatigue, electrolyte imbalance and an increase in mucus and bacteria (mainly Pasteurellaceae) in the lower respiratory tract. Significant association between the horse behaviour en route, particularly the time spent with the head in an elevated position and the frequency of stress related behaviours, and the increases in mucus, bacteria and free radicals were found. While transport-related health problems are multifactorial, clinical examination including auscultation before and after travel, behavioural observation en route, monitoring of redox-balance and fibrinogen concentrations may aid in the identification of horses at risk of transport-related respiratory disease (Chapter 5). Overall, this thesis provides a better understanding of transportation stress and collects important data from the Australian transport and equine industry. A number of welfare indicators and management practices were recommended to safeguard horse welfare during transport, and new research areas were identified for further studies

Evolving prospects on bovine respiratory diseases and management in feedlot cattle

Bovine respiratory disease (BRD) is one of the major economical and welfare concerns for the cattle industry worldwide (1). BRD incidence varies enormously according to farm management, prophylaxis measures, involved pathogens, and animal-related predisposing factors since all of them play a decisive role in the development and severity of the disease (2, 3). The Research Topic consequently aims to broaden the current knowledge on BRD etiology, on its pathogenetic mechanisms, on possible hazards related to breeding and transport practices, on immunopathological implications, on new technologies for the diagnosis, on possible prophylaxis and treatment, as well as on risk factors and on emerging antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Due to the multifactorial etiology of the syndrome, the articles encompass within this Research Topic have all a multidisciplinary approac

The first protocol for assessing the welfare of dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) kept under nomadic pastoralism

There is no protocol to measure the welfare level of dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarious) kept under pastoralism-the predominant husbandry system of this species. This study therefore aimed to develop and describe a protocol for measuring welfare levels in dromedary camels kept under nomadic pastoralist conditions-. The indicators for each welfare principle (i.e., Good Feeding, Good Housing, Good Health, and Appropriate Behavior) were tailored to the specific conditions of camel pastoralism, drawing from the currently available protocol for assessing welfare in dromedary camels kept in intensive and semi-intensive systems. This adaptation was achieved using a structured literature search and Expert Knowledge Elicitation (EKE). The developed protocol, covering animal-, resource-, and management-based indicators, comprises two assessment levels: 'Caretaker-Herd level' and 'Animal level'. The Caretaker-Herd level is a face-to-face interview of about 10 min including 16 questions, spit into the four welfare principles, and a visual observation of applied animal handling practices. The 'Animal level' encompasses a behavioral observation and a visual clinical inspection of randomly selected individual dromedary camels, about 5 min/camel. The 'Animal level' includes 27 welfare indicators displayed for each welfare principle. The present study also includes the score for each indicator, the model for aggregating indicators' scores into compound indices for each welfare principle (PAI), and how to classify the herds based on the PAIs or to produce an overall welfare index for each herd. Even if the proposed protocol needs to be applied, refined, and validated, it is a first step toward a standardized method to collect data related to dromedary camel welfare kept under pastoralism. This framework may ultimately guide herd managers, animal health practitioners, experienced advisers, and lawmakers in fostering optimal conditions and proposing welfare standards for dromedary camels in pastoralist settings

The first protocol for assessing the welfare of dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) kept under nomadic pastoralism

There is no protocol to measure the welfare level of dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarious) kept under pastoralism—the predominant husbandry system of this species. This study therefore aimed to develop and describe a protocol for measuring welfare levels in dromedary camels kept under nomadic pastoralist conditions—. The indicators for each welfare principle (i.e., Good Feeding, Good Housing, Good Health, and Appropriate Behavior) were tailored to the specific conditions of camel pastoralism, drawing from the currently available protocol for assessing welfare in dromedary camels kept in intensive and semi-intensive systems. This adaptation was achieved using a structured literature search and Expert Knowledge Elicitation (EKE). The developed protocol, covering animal-, resource-, and management-based indicators, comprises two assessment levels: ‘Caretaker-Herd level’ and ‘Animal level’. The Caretaker-Herd level is a face-to-face interview of about 10 min including 16 questions, spit into the four welfare principles, and a visual observation of applied animal handling practices. The ‘Animal level’ encompasses a behavioral observation and a visual clinical inspection of randomly selected individual dromedary camels, about 5 min/camel. The ‘Animal level’ includes 27 welfare indicators displayed for each welfare principle. The present study also includes the score for each indicator, the model for aggregating indicators’ scores into compound indices for each welfare principle (PAI), and how to classify the herds based on the PAIs or to produce an overall welfare index for each herd. Even if the proposed protocol needs to be applied, refined, and validated, it is a first step toward a standardized method to collect data related to dromedary camel welfare kept under pastoralism. This framework may ultimately guide herd managers, animal health practitioners, experienced advisers, and lawmakers in fostering optimal conditions and proposing welfare standards for dromedary camels in pastoralist settings

Effects of Transport Conditions on Behavioural and Physiological Responses of Horses

The regulations for minimal space and direction of travel for land transport in horses vary worldwide and there is currently no definitive guidance to promote equine health and welfare. This study evaluated the eects of bay size and direction of travel (forwards/backwards) in horses by comparing the behavioural, physiological, laboratory and gastroscopy parameters between transported and confined horses. A total of twenty-six mares took part in the study; 12 horses were confined for 12 h, and all mares underwent 12 hours\u2019 transportation, travelling in single (n = 18) or wide bays (n = 8), and forward (n = 10) or rear (n = 16) facing. Behaviour was recorded during confinement/transportation and analysed using a behaviour sampling ethogram. Clinical examination, blood samples and gastroscopy were conducted before and after confinement/transportation. The frequency of behaviours relating to stress and balance increased during transport, and horses transported in a rear-facing position and in a wider bay size showed fewer balance-related behaviours. Balance behaviours, particularly loss of balance, were positively associated with the severity of gastric ulceration after transportation and elevated muscle enzymes, while increased stress behaviours correlated with decreased gastrointestinal sounds. Heart rate and rectal temperature after transportation were positively associated with balance and stress behaviours, and with squamous gastric ulcer scores. Transportation was associated with expected increases in cortisol and muscle enzymes, but positioning and space allowance had minimal eects on these analytes. Findings suggest that transportation in a rear-facing position and in wider bays might reduce the impact of transport on horse health and welfare, and monitoring behaviour in transit and physiological measurements after transportation should be recommended. Behavioural and physiological parameters were more sensitive than haematological, biochemical or endocrine analytes to identify horses suering from transport stres

The effect of different types of physical exercise on the behavioural and physiological parameters of Standardbred horses housed in single stalls

The aim of this study was to investigate the impacts of three different physical exercises on the physiological and behavioural patterns of Standardbred trotters housed in single stalls. Twelve racing mares were observed twice during each different exercise: daily training (DT) consisted of forty minutes at slow trot (4-5 m/s) in a small track; maximal exercise (ME) consisted of 1600m run at maximal velocity; race (R) was a real race of 1600 m. The mares were examined at rest in their stall (Time I), soon after the completion of the exercise (Time II), one hour (Time III), and two hours (Time IV) after the exercise.Their heart rate, respiratory rate, and rectal temperature were recorded and they were videotaped in order to complete a focal animal sampling ethogram. All physiological parameters increased after exercise, in accordance with its intensity. After R andMEhorses spentmore time drinking, eating, and standing. The incidence of abnormal behaviours was very low and it was not affected by the different types of exercise. Overall, the assessment of horse behaviour after physical exercise bymeans of a focal animal sampling ethogramrepresents a useful tool to monitor equine welfare

Camel welfare: survey on camel caretakers' perspectives

Animal welfare depends on caretakers' handling and management skills. The study aimed at gaining information on camel caretakers' backgrounds, their perceptions of welfare and management practices and at investigating associations with camel health and behavioural problems. The study was conducted at a camel market in Qatar and 49 caretakers were interviewed (29 questions). Caretakers were male, mainly from Sudan (91.7%; P<0.001), and had mainly learned camel management from family members (81.6%; P<0.001). Camels were mainly from Qatar, reared for milk, breeding or meat. The majority of the caretakers under 30 years took care of camels reared as breeding animals or for milk production (n=12, 75.0%), while the caretakers over 40 years took care of camels for dual-purposes (n=7, 46.7%; P<0.05) or meat (n=4, 26.7%). Camels received rationed feed and water (87.6%, 53.1%, P<0.001), and were dewormed regularly (96.8%, P<0.001) but not vaccinated (72.9%; P<0.001). Respondents experienced at least one camel with a behavioural (45.8%) and a health (87.8%) problem and associations between management practices and those problems were found. Behavioural problems were associated with the number of health problems, suggesting that sick camels tended to show behavioural modifications. Caretakers ranked their ability to recognise a camel in distress/pain as high, reporting that the first sign was a change in behaviour. The caretakers' understanding of animal welfare was, however, low, missing the overall meaning of the concept; most caretakers defined animal welfare according to only one (52.2%) welfare principle. Overall, early and appropriate treatment of camels with health and behavioural problems, an increased presence of veterinarians at camel farms, and education on camel behaviour and welfare are recommended

Camel welfare: survey on camel caretakers' perspectives

Animal welfare depends on caretakers’ handling and management skills. The study aimed at gaining information on camel caretakers’ backgrounds, their perceptions of welfare and management practices and at investigating associations with camel health and behavioural problems. The study was conducted at a camel market in Qatar and 49 caretakers were interviewed (29 questions). Caretakers were male, mainly from Sudan (91.7%; P<0.001), and had mainly learned camel management from family members (81.6%; P<0.001). Camels were mainly from Qatar, reared for milk, breeding or meat. The majority of the caretakers under 30 years took care of camels reared as breeding animals or for milk production (n=12, 75.0%), while the caretakers over 40 years took care of camels for dual-purposes (n=7, 46.7%; P<0.05) or meat (n=4, 26.7%). Camels received rationed feed and water (87.6%, 53.1%, P<0.001), and were dewormed regularly (96.8%, P<0.001) but not vaccinated (72.9%; P<0.001). Respondents experienced at least one camel with a behavioural (45.8%) and a health (87.8%) problem and associations between management practices and those problems were found. Behavioural problems were associated with the number of health problems, suggesting that sick camels tended to show behavioural modifications. Caretakers ranked their ability to recognise a camel in distress/pain as high, reporting that the first sign was a change in behaviour. The caretakers’ understanding of animal welfare was, however, low, missing the overall meaning of the concept; most caretakers defined animal welfare according to only one (52.2%) welfare principle. Overall, early and appropriate treatment of camels with health and behavioural problems, an increased presence of veterinarians at camel farms, and education on camel behaviour and welfare are recommended.Animal welfare depends on caretakers' handling and management skills. The study aimed at gaining information on camel caretakers' backgrounds, their perceptions of welfare and management practices and at investigating associations with camel health and behavioural problems. The study was conducted at a camel market in Qatar and 49 caretakers were interviewed (29 questions). Caretakers were male, mainly from Sudan (91.7%; P<0.001), and had mainly learned camel management from family members (81.6%; P<0.001). Camels were mainly from Qatar, reared for milk, breeding or meat. The majority of the caretakers under 30 years took care of camels reared as breeding animals or for milk production (n=12, 75.0%), while the caretakers over 40 years took care of camels for dual-purposes (n=7, 46.7%; P<0.05) or meat (n=4, 26.7%). Camels received rationed feed and water (87.6%, 53.1%, P<0.001), and were dewormed regularly (96.8%, P<0.001) but not vaccinated (72.9%; P<0.001). Respondents experienced at least one camel with a behavioural (45.8%) and a health (87.8%) problem and associations between management practices and those problems were found. Behavioural problems were associated with the number of health problems, suggesting that sick camels tended to show behavioural modifications. Caretakers ranked their ability to recognise a camel in distress/pain as high, reporting that the first sign was a change in behaviour. The caretakers' understanding of animal welfare was, however, low, missing the overall meaning of the concept; most caretakers defined animal welfare according to only one (52.2%) welfare principle. Overall, early and appropriate treatment of camels with health and behavioural problems, an increased presence of veterinarians at camel farms, and education on camel behaviour and welfare are recommended

An analysis of equine round pen training videos posted online: Differences between amateur and professional trainers

Natural Horsemanship is popular among many amateur and professional trainers and as such, has been the subject of recent scientific enquiry. One method commonly adopted by Natural Horsemanship (NH) trainers is that of round pen training (RPT). RPT sessions are usually split into a series of bouts; each including two phases: chasing/flight and chasing offset/flight offset. However, NH training styles are heterogeneous. This study investigated online videos of RPT to explore the characteristics of RPT sessions and test for differences in techniques and outcomes between amateurs and professionals (the latter being defined as those with accompanying online materials that promote clinics, merchandise or a service to the public). From more than 300 candidate videos, we selected sample files for individual amateur (n = 24) and professional (n = 21) trainers. Inclusion criteria were: training at liberty in a Round Pen; more than one bout and good quality video. Sessions or portions of sessions were excluded if the trainer attached equipment, such as a lunge line, directly to the horse or the horse was saddled, mounted or ridden. The number of bouts and duration of each chasing and non-chasing phase were recorded, and the duration of each RPT session was calculated. General weighted regression analysis revealed that, when compared with amateurs, professionals showed fewer arm movements per bout (p<0.05). Poisson regression analysis showed that professionals spent more time looking up at their horses, when transitioning between gaits, than amateurs did (p<0.05). The probability of horses following the trainer was not significantly associated with amount of chasing, regardless of category. Given that, according to some practitioners, the following response is a goal of RPT, this result may prompt caution in those inclined to give chase. The horses handled by professionals showed fewer conflict behaviours (e.g. kicking, biting, stomping, head-tossing, defecating, bucking and attempting to escape), and fewer oral and head movements (e.g. head-lowering, licking and chewing) than those horses handled by amateurs Overall, these findings highlight the need for selectivity when using the internet as an educational source and the importance of trainer skill and excellent timing when using negative reinforcement in horse training

Comparison of nonlinear growth models and factors affecting body weight at different ages in Toy Poodles

Limited information is available to evaluate optimal growth in Toy Poodles. This work aimed at comparing three growth curves, proposing centile charts and developing a model to estimate the adult body weight (BW) in Toy Poodles. A total of 65 puppies (male = 30, female = 35) born in the same breeding centre were used. BW at birth and, weekly BW, for 53 weeks, BW of parents, litter size, type of management, daily activity and neutering were recorded. Forty-six puppies were sold, and their data were reported by the new owners. Three growth curves (i.e. Hawthorne, Brody and Gompertz) were constructed and compared; Linear Mixed Models including demographic characteristics and management habits were built. The BW at birth was 154 ± 35 g and adult BW was 3208 ± 860 g. Based on the goodness-of-fit and accuracy indices, Gompertz was the best growth model and was selected to plot centile curves based on sex. Toy Poodles achieved 50% of their adult weight at 11–12 weeks, with an overall growth rate of 11.8%. Adult BW was affected by birth BW (p <.01), sex (p <.05) and mother’s BW (p <.01) and their effects varied depending on the age. Extrinsic factors, including litter size, type of management and daily activity were less significant, probably due to the standardised and high-level management of these Toy Poodles. These new and applicable tools for monitoring the growth and predicting adult BW could be useful for veterinarians, breeders and owners for early diagnosis of poor health and welfare. Subject classification codes: companion animals sectionsHighlights Performance of three logistic models for describing the growth curve in Italian Toy Poodles were compared Based on the goodness of fit and accuracy indices, Gompertz was the best growth model The centile growth curves were constructed for males and females using the Gompertz Adult body weight (BW) was mainly affected by the sex and birth BW, and less by BW of the parents and litter size Monitoring BW of puppies may be useful to enhance their health and welfare