48 research outputs found

    Tides in colliding galaxies

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    Long tails and streams of stars are the most noticeable upshots of galaxy collisions. Their origin as gravitational, tidal, disturbances has however been recognized only less than fifty years ago and more than ten years after their first observations. This Review describes how the idea of galactic tides emerged, in particular thanks to the advances in numerical simulations, from the first ones that included tens of particles to the most sophisticated ones with tens of millions of them and state-of-the-art hydrodynamical prescriptions. Theoretical aspects pertaining to the formation of tidal tails are then presented. The third part of the review turns to observations and underlines the need for collecting deep multi-wavelength data to tackle the variety of physical processes exhibited by collisional debris. Tidal tails are not just stellar structures, but turn out to contain all the components usually found in galactic disks, in particular atomic / molecular gas and dust. They host star-forming complexes and are able to form star-clusters or even second-generation dwarf galaxies. The final part of the review discusses what tidal tails can tell us (or not) about the structure and content of present-day galaxies, including their dark components, and explains how tidal tails may be used to probe the past evolution of galaxies and their mass assembly history. On-going deep wide-field surveys disclose many new low-surface brightness structures in the nearby Universe, offering great opportunities for attempting galactic archeology with tidal tails.Comment: 46 pages, 13 figures, Review to be published in "Tidal effects in Astronomy and Astrophysics", Lecture Notes in Physics. Comments are most welcom

    Biofuels, greenhouse gases and climate change. A review

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    An empirical examination of information, differences of opinion, and trading activity

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    We investigate the relations between trading volumes and our proxies for information flows and divergences in opinions. We view S&P 500 Index futures' open interest as a useful proxy for divergences of traders' opinions, and find that volumes are higher on days when open interest increases than on days with declines. Volume in individual equities is more closely related to firm-specific information flows, while equity basket volume is more closely associated with market information. This differential impact is greatest for small capitalization stocks where market-wide news has no explanatory power

    Relaxation nuclĂ©aire de 3He ↑ dans un champ magnĂ©tique inhomogĂšne

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    This article gives a theoretical study of the effects of weak magnetic field gradients on the spin relaxation of a dilute atomic gas. The theory is valid for low or moderate values of the field (the relevant correlation time of the gas is then the diffusion time across the container) as well as for high fields (the intercollision time then plays the most important role). Quantum effects due to particle indistinguishability are included. No consequences of the divergence of the atomic mean free path in a polarized gas at zero temperature are found, in contrast to the situation for viscosity and heat conductivity. On the other hand, substantial effects due to « identical spin rotation effects » are predicted.On prĂ©sente dans cet article une Ă©tude thĂ©orique de la relaxation de spin d'un gaz atomique diluĂ©, produite par un gradient de champ magnĂ©tique de faible intensitĂ©. La thĂ©orie est valide Ă  la fois en champ faible ou modĂ©rĂ© (cas oĂč le temps de corrĂ©lation du gaz qui joue un rĂŽle est le temps de diffusion dans son rĂ©cipient) et en champ fort (c'est alors le temps entre collisions qui joue le rĂŽle essentiel). Elle tient compte des effets quantiques d'indiscernabilitĂ© des atomes. Si les effets de divergence du libre parcours moyen dans un gaz polarisĂ© Ă  tempĂ©rature nulle ne jouent ici aucun rĂŽle, contrairement Ă  ce qui se produit pour la viscositĂ© par exemple, les effets de « rotation des spins identiques » peuvent ĂȘtre importants

    Le second coefficient du viriel de H atomique ; effet des variables internes

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    We consider a gas of atomic hydrogen which is supposed to be stable against molecular recombination and whose internal variables (electronic and nuclear spins) are described by a given density matrix ρSI. Since each atom consists of a pair of fermions (one proton and one electron) which is not indissociable due to the possibility of spin exchange collisions, their bosonic behaviour is not obvious a priori. Our aim is to discuss to what extent the pressure of such a gas is actually the pressure of a gas of bosons, our calculation being restricted to the quantum-mechanical second virial coefficient (second order correction in density to the pressure of a dilute gas). We find that this coefficient is the sum of several terms, due either to pure statistics (particle-density effects in the absence of interactions) or to the combined effects of interaction and quantum statistics (role of Vg and Vu potentials). All these terms depend explicitly on the average over ρSI of some spin operators. The pure quantum statistical contribution, which is dominant at very low temperature, is related to the exchange of two atoms as a whole (protons and electrons exchanged at the same time), which accounts for its bosonic behaviour. On the other hand, the interaction effects give rise to contributions associated with the exchange of one kind of particle only (protons or electrons) related to the spin exchange collisions, in addition to contributions arising from the exchange of whole atoms.On considĂšre un gaz d'atomes d'hydrogĂšne supposĂ© stable (pas de recombinaison molĂ©culaire), dont les variables internes de spins Ă©lectronique et nuclĂ©aire sont dĂ©crites par un opĂ©rateur densitĂ© fixĂ© ρSI. Les atomes Ă©tant chacun constituĂ© d'une paire de fermions (un proton et un Ă©lectron), non indissociable du fait de l'existence des collisions d'Ă©change de spin, leur comportement de bosons n'est pas Ă©vident. Le but de cet article est de discuter dans quelle mesure la pression du gaz est effectivement celle d'un gaz de bosons indissociables, dans le cadre d'un calcul limitĂ© Ă  celui du second coefficient du viriel (correction du second ordre en densitĂ© pour un gaz diluĂ©). On trouve que ce coefficient comprend en fait plusieurs termes, soit de statistique pure (effets d'indiscernabilitĂ© en l'absence d'interaction entre atomes), soit d'interaction et de statistique combinĂ©es (effets des potentiels Vg et Vu). Tous ces termes dĂ©pendent explicitement des valeurs moyennes d'un certain nombre d'opĂ©rateurs de spin, calculables Ă  partir de ρSI. Le terme de statistique pure, dominant Ă  trĂšs basse tempĂ©rature, correspond Ă  l'Ă©change d'atomes complets (Ă©change simultanĂ© de leurs protons et de leurs Ă©lectrons), ce qui explique son caractĂšre bosonique. En revanche, dans les termes liĂ©s aux interactions apparaissent, non seulement des contributions provenant de l'Ă©change d'atomes complets, mais Ă©galement des contributions liĂ©es Ă  l'Ă©change d'un type de particule seulement (protons ou Ă©lectrons) qu'on peut relier aux effets des collisions d'Ă©change de spin

    Relaxation nucléaire de 3He gazeux sur H2 solide

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    We prĂ©sent a detailed expĂ©rimental study of the wall-relaxation on solid H2 surfaces of a dilute 3He gas, oriented by optical pumping. In these experiments, we measure the nuclear relaxation time of the whole sample of 3He, which is directly related to the relaxation time Ta of the 3He atoms adsorbed on the solid H2 coating the sample walls. Measurement of T1 as a function of the tempĂ©rature leads to an experimental determination of the adsorption energy of a 3He atom on solid H2 : ΔW (3He/H2) = 12 ± 3 K. In addition, Ă©xperiments have been done on D2 and Ne solid coatings leading to Δ W (3He/D2) = 20 ± 3 K and Δ ΔW (3He/Ne) = 38 ± 5 K ; all these experimental values are in good agreement with theoretical predictions.Cet article prĂ©sente une Ă©tude expĂ©rimentale dĂ©taillĂ©e de la relaxation-paroi sur des surfaces de H2 solide d'un gaz diluĂ© de 3He, orientĂ© par pompage optique. La grandeur mesurĂ©e dans ces expĂ©riences est le temps de relaxation global T1 de l'orientation nuclĂ©aire de l'Ă©chantillon de 3He, liĂ© directement au temps de relaxation Ta de la phase adsorbĂ©e (composĂ©e d'atomes de 3He adsorbĂ©s Ă  la surface de H2 solide). L'Ă©tude des variations de T1 en fonction de la tempĂ©rature permet de dĂ©terminer expĂ©rimentalement l'Ă©nergie d'adsorption d'un atome de 3He sur H2 solide : ΔW (3He/H2) = 12 ± 3 K. Des expĂ©riences complĂ©mentaires sur D2 et Ne solides sont Ă©galement prĂ©sentĂ©es qui conduisent Ă  une mesure de ΔW (3He/D2) = 20 ± 3 K et ΔW (3He/Ne) = 38 ± 5 K, l'ensemble de ces valeurs expĂ©rimentales concordant bien avec les prĂ©dictions thĂ©oriques existantes

    Nuclear polarization through optical pumping of gaseous 3He below 1 K

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    We have extended to temperatures below 1 K the optical pumping technique for polarizing the nuclei pf ground state 3He atoms in the gas phase. A superfluid 4He film covering the surface of the pyrex cell protected the 3He atoms from the rapid depolarization processes that would be experienced in the presence of bare pyrex walls. Relatively long relaxation times of order 103 s were observed at temperatures down to 500 mK, the lowest temperature accessible with the present apparatus.La mĂ©thode du pompage optique qui permet d'orienter nuclĂ©airement 3He gazeux a pu ĂȘtre Ă©tendue au domaine des tempĂ©ratures en dessous de 1 K. L'utilisation d'un enduit superfluide de 4He couvrant la paroi interne de la cellule a permis de rĂ©duire trĂšs fortement la relaxation nuclĂ©aire intense qui serait produite par du pyrex nu. On obtient ainsi des temps de relaxation nuclĂ©aires relativement longs (Tr ≜ 103 s), mĂȘme aux tempĂ©ratures les plus basses accessibles dans l'expĂ©rience (T ≅ 500 mK)
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