Bursts and Isolated Spikes Code for Opposite Movement Directions in Midbrain Electrosensory Neurons

Directional selectivity, in which neurons respond strongly to an object moving in a given direction but weakly or not at all to the same object moving in the opposite direction, is a crucial computation that is thought to provide a neural correlate of motion perception. However, directional selectivity has been traditionally quantified by using the full spike train, which does not take into account particular action potential patterns. We investigated how different action potential patterns, namely bursts (i.e. packets of action potentials followed by quiescence) and isolated spikes, contribute to movement direction coding in a mathematical model of midbrain electrosensory neurons. We found that bursts and isolated spikes could be selectively elicited when the same object moved in opposite directions. In particular, it was possible to find parameter values for which our model neuron did not display directional selectivity when the full spike train was considered but displayed strong directional selectivity when bursts or isolated spikes were instead considered. Further analysis of our model revealed that an intrinsic burst mechanism based on subthreshold T-type calcium channels was not required to observe parameter regimes for which bursts and isolated spikes code for opposite movement directions. However, this burst mechanism enhanced the range of parameter values for which such regimes were observed. Experimental recordings from midbrain neurons confirmed our modeling prediction that bursts and isolated spikes can indeed code for opposite movement directions. Finally, we quantified the performance of a plausible neural circuit and found that it could respond more or less selectively to isolated spikes for a wide range of parameter values when compared with an interspike interval threshold. Our results thus show for the first time that different action potential patterns can differentially encode movement and that traditional measures of directional selectivity need to be revised in such cases

Unexpected High Digestion Rate of Cooked Starch by the Ct-Maltase-Glucoamylase Small Intestine Mucosal α-Glucosidase Subunit

For starch digestion to glucose, two luminal α-amylases and four gut mucosal α-glucosidase subunits are employed. The aim of this research was to investigate, for the first time, direct digestion capability of individual mucosal α-glucosidases on cooked (gelatinized) starch. Gelatinized normal maize starch was digested with N- and C-terminal subunits of recombinant mammalian maltase-glucoamylase (MGAM) and sucrase-isomaltase (SI) of varying amounts and digestion periods. Without the aid of α-amylase, Ct-MGAM demonstrated an unexpected rapid and high digestion degree near 80%, while other subunits showed 20 to 30% digestion. These findings suggest that Ct-MGAM assists α-amylase in digesting starch molecules and potentially may compensate for developmental or pathological amylase deficiencies

Production of lactic acid and fungal biomass by Rhizopus fungi from food processing waste streams

This study proposed a novel waste utilization bioprocess for production of lactic acid and fungal biomass from waste streams by fungal species of Rhizopus arrhizus 36017 and R. oryzae 2062. The lactic acid and fungal biomass were produced in a single-stage simultaneous saccharification and fermentation process using potato, corn, wheat and pineapple waste streams as production media. R. arrhizus 36017 gave a high lactic acid yield up to 0.94–0.97 g/g of starch or sugars associated with 4–5 g/l of fungal biomass produced, while 17–19 g/l fungal biomass with a lactic acid yield of 0.65–0.76 g/g was produced by the R. oryzae 2062 in 36–48 h fermentation. Supplementation of 2 g/l of ammonium sulfate, yeast extract and peptone stimulated an increase in 8–15% lactic acid yield and 10–20% fungal biomass

Observações citológicas em citrus: lll. megasporogênese, fertilização e poliembrionia

É apresentada uma revisão geral da megasporogênese, fertilização, formação do endosperma e poliembrionia em Citrus, tendo sido confirmada, pelas observações nas espécies C. paradisi Macf. e C. aurantium L., a maioria das conclusões feitas por Strassburger (10) e Osawa (6). É descrita uma nova forma de poliembrionia causada pela existência, em alguns casos, de dois gametófitos num mesmo óvulo; explica-se, dêste modo, a origem de dois híbridos não idênticos em uma mesma semente. Três formas de poliembrionia são, portanto, conhecidas em Citrus : a) a poliembrionia nucelar, dando origem a um número variável de "seedlings" "maternais" idênticos e derivados do nucelo; 2) a poliembrionia por clivagem (4, 5), originada pela suposta bipartição do embrião sexual; e 3) a poliembrionia causada pela ocorrência de mais de um gametófito normal no mesmo óvulo. O endosperma em Citrus pertence ao tipo nuclear.<br>1. A general review is presented of megasporogenesis, fertilization, endosperm formation and polyembryony in Citrus, most of the findings of Strassburger (10) and Osawa (6) having been confirmed through investigation of C. parodisi Macf. and C. aurantium L. 2. A new form of polyembryony is presented, caused by the existence in some instances of two gametophytes in the same ovule. The origin of two non-identical hybrids from the same seed is thus explained. 3. Three forms of polyembryony are therefore known in Citrus, (a) nucellar embryony, giving rise to a variable number of identical, "maternal" seedlings derived from the nucellus ; (b) cleavage polyembryony (4, 5) originating through fission of the generative embryo; and (c) polyembryony caused by the occurrence of more than one normal gametophyte in the same ovule. The endosperm in Citrus is free