Herramientas de cribado virtual aplicadas a inhibidores de entrada del VIH. Diseño de nuevos compuestos anti-VIH

Els inhibidors d'entrada del VIH han sorgit recentment com una nova generació de fàrmacs antiretrovirals, els quals bloquegen la unió del virus als co-receptors de membrana CXCR4 i CCR5. S'han desenvolupat diverses molècules petites antagonistes d'aquests co-receptors, algunes de les quals estan actualment en fase d'assaig clínic. No obstant això, donat que no existeixen estructures cristal·logràfiques per aquests co-receptors proteics, és necessari analitzar els modes d'unió d'inhibidors coneguts a la cavitat d'unió extracel·lular dels co-receptors mitjançant experiments de mutagènesi dirigida i estudis computacionals. En general, l'objectiu d'aquestes aproximacions computacionals és cribar un gran nombre de compostos candidats a fàrmacs ràpidament. El cribatge virtual s'ha convertit recentment en un complement útil dels mètodes de cribatge experimentals high-throughput screening per a grans llibreries de compostos. Per tant, en aquesta tesi s'ha portat a terme un protocol de cribatge virtual, mitjançant aproximacions basades en el receptor i en lligands actius coneguts, amb la finalitat de trobar antagonistes de CXCR4 i CCR5 que puguin servir com a potencials inhibidors d'entrada del VIH.Per al cribatge virtual basat en el receptor, s'han millorat els models dels co-receptors CXCR4 i CCR5 construïts a la secció de disseny molecular de l'IQS, i s'han portat a terme assajos preliminars de mode d'unió utilitzant aquests models i lligands coneguts d'elevada afinitat. Així mateix, s'ha analitzat el comportament en el cribatge virtual i en el post-processat de resultats de docking de diferents fingerprints d'interacció en comparació amb els resultats obtinguts per un nou fingerprint d'interacció (APIF) desenvolupat a la secció de disseny molecular de l'IQS.Per al cribatge virtual basat en lligands, s'han comparat models farmacofòrics i diverses aproximacions basades en la forma i propietats moleculars utilitzant lligands d'elevada afinitat com a molècules de referència. A més, s'ha desenvolupat una nova aproximació basada en la forma molecular, la qual s'ha utilitzat per a estudiar en profunditat la hipòtesi de la multi-regió d'unió de la cavitat d'unió extracel·lular del co-receptor CCR5.Tots els mètodes, ja siguin basats en el receptor o en lligands coneguts, s'han aplicat en primer lloc de manera retrospectiva utilitzant una extensa base de dades d'inhibidors de CXCR4/CCR5 i suposats inactius, similars en propietats als actius, recopilada en aquesta tesi. Per a cada receptor, la quimioteca ha estat cribada utilitzat inhibidors coneguts, S'han analitzat els factors d'enriquiment i la diversitat a les llistes finals de hits. A més, s'han portat a terme anàlisis ROC per a ambdós inhibidors de CXCR4 i CCR5 amb la finalitat de comparar l'habilitat del nou algoritme basat en la igualtat de formes de lligands amb la resta d'aproximacions de cribatge utilitzades.Una vegada validades les diferents aproximacions de cribatge i seleccionats els millors paràmetres per a cadascuna d'elles, s'han aplicat les eines de cribatge virtual de manera prospectiva sobre una quimioteca combinatòria dissenyada a la secció de disseny molecular de l'IQS, així com tècniques de disseny de novo de lligands per tal d'identificar nous bloquejadors de l'entrada del VIH a les cèl·lules.Los inhibidores de entrada del VIH han surgido recientemente como una nueva generación de fármacos antiretrovirales, los cuales bloquean la unión del virus con los co-receptores de membrana CXCR4 y CCR5. Se han desarrollado diversas moléculas pequeñas antagonistas de estos co-receptores, algunas de las cuales están actualmente en fase de ensayo clínico. Sin embargo, dado que no existen estructuras cristalográficas para estos co-receptores proteicos, es necesario analizar los modos de unión de inhibidores conocidos a la cavidad de unión extracelular de los co-receptores mediante experimentos de mutagénesis dirigida y estudios computacionales. En general, el objetivo de estas aproximaciones computacionales es cribar un gran número de compuestos candidatos a fármacos rápidamente. El cribado virtual se ha convertido recientemente en un complemento útil de los métodos de cribado experimentales high-throughput screening para grandes librerías de compuestos. Por lo tanto, en esta tesis se ha llevado a cabo un protocolo de cribado virtual, mediante aproximaciones basadas en el receptor y en ligandos activos conocidos, con el fin de encontrar antagonistas de CXCR4 y CCR5 que puedan servir como potenciales inhibidores de entrada del VIH.Para el cribado virtual basado en el receptor, se han mejorado los modelos de los co-receptores CXCR4 y CCR5 construidos en la sección de diseño molecular del IQS, y se han llevado a cabo ensayos preliminares de modo de unión utilizando estos modelos y ligandos conocidos de elevada afinidad. Asimismo, se ha analizado el comportamiento en el cribado virtual y en el post-procesado de resultados de docking de diferentes fingerprints de interacción en comparación con los resultados obtenidos por un nuevo fingerprint de interacción (APIF) desarrollado en la sección de diseño molecular del IQS.Para el cribado virtual basado en ligandos, se han comparado modelos farmacofóricos y diversas aproximaciones basadas en la forma y propiedades moleculares utilizando ligandos de elevada afinidad como moléculas de referencia. Además, se ha desarrollado una nueva aproximación basada en la forma molecular, la cual se ha utilizado para estudiar en profundidad la hipótesis de la multi-región de unión de la cavidad de unión extracelular del co-receptor CCR5.Todos los métodos, ya sean basados en el receptor o en ligandos conocidos, se han aplicado en primer lugar de manera retrospectiva utilizando una extensa base de datos de inhibidores de CXCR4/CCR5 y supuestos inactivos, similares en propiedades a los activos, recopilada en esta tesis. Para cada receptor, la quimioteca ha sido cribada utilizando inhibidores conocidos, Se han analizado los factores de enriquecimiento y la diversidad en las listas finales de hits. Además, se han llevado a cabo análisis ROC para ambos inhibidores de CXCR4 y CCR5 con el fin de comparar la habilidad del nuevo algoritmo basado en la igualdad de formas de ligandos con el resto de aproximaciones de cribado utilizadas.Una vez validadas las diferentes aproximaciones de cribado y seleccionados los mejores parámetros para cada una de ellas, se han aplicado las herramientas de cribado virtual de manera prospectiva sobre una quimioteca combinatoria diseñada en la sección de diseño molecular del IQS, así como técnicas de diseño de novo de ligandos para identificar nuevos bloqueadores de la entrada del VIH a las células.HIV entry inhibitors have emerged as a new generation of antiretroviral drugs that block viral fusion with the CXCR4 and CCR5 membrane co-receptors. Several small molecule antagonists for these co-receptors have been developed, some of which are currently in clinical trials. However, because no crystal structures for the co-receptor proteins are available, the binding modes of the known inhibitors within the co-receptor extracellular pockets need to be analyzed by means of site-directed mutagenesis and computational experiments. Generally, the objective of these computational approaches is to screen large numbers of candidate drug compounds rapidly. Virtual screening has recently become a useful complement to laboratory-based high-throughput screening methods for large libraries of compounds. Hence, in this thesis, a virtual screening protocol, using several receptor-based and ligand-based approaches, has been performed to find CXCR4 and CCR5 antagonists that could potentially serve as HIV entry inhibitors.For receptor-based virtual screening, homology models of CXCR4 and CCR5 co-receptors built in our research group have been improved, and preliminary binding mode analyses using these models and high affinity known ligands have been carried out. Also, the performance in virtual screening and docking post-processing of different interaction fingerprints, compared to the results obtained with a new interaction fingerprint (APIF) developed in our research group, has been analysed.For ligand-based virtual screening, pharmacophore modelling and several shape-based and property-based molecular comparison approaches have been compared, using high-affinity ligands as query molecules. Also, a novel consensus shape-based virtual screening approach has been developed and used to investigate and add further evidence for multiple binding sites within the CCR5 extracellular pocket hypothesis.All the receptor-based and ligand-based methods have been firstly applied in a retrospective virtual screening, using a large database of known CXCR4/CCR5 inhibitors and similar presumed inactive molecules assembled in this thesis. For each receptor, the library has been queried using known binders, and the enrichment factors and diversity of the resulting virtual hit lists have been analyzed. Moreover, receiver-operator-characteristic analyses for both CXCR4 and CCR5 inhibitors have been carried out in order to compare the performance of the new consensus shape matching algorithm with the other screening approaches used. Once the different virtual screening approaches have been validated and the best parameters for each one have been selected, prospective virtual screening of a combinatorial library designed by our research group and de novo design methods have been applied to identify new HIV entry blockers

Applying in silico Tools to the Discovery of Novel CXCR4 Inhibitors

International audienceThe process of HIV entry begins with the binding of the viral envelope glycoprotein gp120 to both the CD4 receptor and one of the CXCR4 or CCR5 chemokine coreceptors. There is currently considerable interest in developing novel ligands which can bind to these coreceptors and hence block virus-cell fusion. This article reviews the use of different in silico structure-based and ligand-based virtual screening (VS) tools for the discovery of potential HIV entry inhibitors for the CXCR4 receptor. More specifically, it discusses homology modelling, de novo design, docking, QSAR analyses, pharmacophore modelling, and similarity searches. Results from retrospective VS of a library of known CXCR4 inhibitors taken from the literature and from prospective VS of a combinatorial virtual library are reviewed. The structures of active compounds found by these approaches, as well as CXCR4 inhibitors currently in development are also discussed

Trainspotting (1996): el problema de las adicciones en los jóvenes

Trainspotting (1996) es una película inglesa dirigida por Danny Boyle, basada en la novela homónima escrita por el escocés Irvine Welsh. La trama gira en torno a Mark Renton, un joven adicto a la heroína con una clara conducta antisocial que se enfrenta a vida y a la toma de decisiones que ésta conlleva. Rodeado por un mundo de drogas y adicciones, el protagonista interactúa con un grupo de amigos, también adictos, donde crean una micro sociedad en la que su único objetivo es consumir. Finalmente Renton, tras formar parte de una comunidad terapéutica y lograr dejar las drogas, consigue trabajo como como agente inmobiliario en Londres, siendo finalmente el único miembro del grupo que consigue escapar del destino autodestructivo que parece esperar a sus ex compañeros.</p

Low potency toxins reveal dense interaction networks in metabolism

Background The chemicals of metabolism are constructed of a small set of atoms and bonds. This may be because chemical structures outside the chemical space in which life operates are incompatible with biochemistry, or because mechanisms to make or utilize such excluded structures has not evolved. In this paper I address the extent to which biochemistry is restricted to a small fraction of the chemical space of possible chemicals, a restricted subset that I call Biochemical Space. I explore evidence that this restriction is at least in part due to selection again specific structures, and suggest a mechanism by which this occurs. Results Chemicals that contain structures that our outside Biochemical Space (UnBiological groups) are more likely to be toxic to a wide range of organisms, even though they have no specifically toxic groups and no obvious mechanism of toxicity. This correlation of UnBiological with toxicity is stronger for low potency (millimolar) toxins. I relate this to the observation that most chemicals interact with many biological structures at low millimolar toxicity. I hypothesise that life has to select its components not only to have a specific set of functions but also to avoid interactions with all the other components of life that might degrade their function. Conclusions The chemistry of life has to form a dense, self-consistent network of chemical structures, and cannot easily be arbitrarily extended. The toxicity of arbitrary chemicals is a reflection of the disruption to that network occasioned by trying to insert a chemical into it without also selecting all the other components to tolerate that chemical. This suggests new ways to test for the toxicity of chemicals, and that engineering organisms to make high concentrations of materials such as chemical precursors or fuels may require more substantial engineering than just of the synthetic pathways involved

EMPRESA FAMILIAR, EQUIPOS DIRECTIVOS, DIVERSIDAD Y AMBIDIESTRÍA EN LAS PYMES

The purpose of this paper is to analyze the impact of family character on SMEs’ ambidexterity. We propose that family character-associated capacities and top management demographic characteristics, particularly team diversity, can influence decision making. These characteristics facilitate perceiving environment changes, as well as responding to them with alternatives that allow SMEs to take advantage of such changes. In addition, these characteristics promote skills that can help reconfigure resources. In a sample of 132 SMEs, we demonstrate that family character and team diversity management – both in terms of experience and age – can improve ambidexterity. More specifically, in the more ambidextrous firms, owners and top management showed age and tenure diversity, but no generational diversit

Identifying and characterizing promiscuous targets: Implications for virtual screening

International audienceIntroduction: Ligand-based shape matching approaches have become established as important and popular virtual screening (VS) techniques. However, despite their relative success, the question of how to best choose the initial query compounds and their conformations remains largely unsolved. This issue gains importance when dealing with promiscuous targets, that is, proteins that bind multiple ligand scaffold families in one or more binding site. Conventional shape matching VS approaches assume that there is only one binding mode for a given protein target. This may be true for some targets, but it is certainly not true in all cases. Several recent studies have shown that some protein targets bind to different ligands in different ways. Areas covered: The authors discuss the concept of promiscuity in the context of virtual drug screening, and present and analyze several examples of promiscuous targets. The article also reports on the impact of the query conformation on the performance of shape-based VS and the potential to improve VS performance by using consensus shape clustering techniques. Expert opinion: The notion of polypharmacology is becoming highly relevant in drug discovery. Understanding and exploiting promiscuity present challenges and opportunities for drug discovery endeavors. The examples of promiscuity presented here suggest that promiscuous targets and ligands are much more common than previously assumed, and this should be taken into account in practical VS protocols. Although some progress has been made, there is a need to develop more sophisticated computational techniques and protocols that can identify and characterize promiscuous targets on a genomic scale

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Recent trends and future prospects in computational GPCR drug discovery: from virtual screening to polypharmacology

International audienceExtending virtual screening approaches to deal with multi-target drug design and polypharmacology is an increasingly important aspect in drug design. In light of this, the concept of accessible chemical space and its exploration should be reviewed. The great advantages of re-using drugs with safe pharmacological profiles with favourable pharmacokinetic properties highlights drug repositioning as a valid alternative to rational drug design, massive drug development efforts, and high-throughput screening, especially when supported by in silico techniques. Here, we discuss some of the advantages of multi-target approaches, and we review some significant examples of their application in the last decade to that well known class of pharmaceutical targets, the G-protein coupled receptors