No. 28:Changing Attitudes to Immigration and Refugee Policy in Botswana

For the last two decades, Botswana has had the reputation as a “country of immigration,” based on the large-scale import of skilled expatriates from Africa, Asia and the West. Successive census reports and immigration data, as well as previous SAMP surveys undertaken in the late 1990s, confirm the appropriateness of the designation. The SAMP surveys concentrated on three themes: (a) the attitudes and migration behaviour of skilled foreigners in the country; (b) the attitudes of Batswana towards cross-border migration to South Africa; and (c) the emigration potential of skilled Batswana. The surveys highlighted the tolerant and generally welcoming attitude prevailing in Botswana towards outsiders.Since those studies, however, the migration scene has changed considerably, with intolerance towards non-citizens growing in a country where it was unknown only a few years earlier. Against this background, the University of Botswana mounted the SAMP National Immigration Policy Survey (NIPS) in Botswana in 2001. This survey delved into areas not systematically considered in the earlier surveys: (a) citizen perceptions of immigrants, migrants and refugees groups and (b) attitudes towards Botswana’s own national immigration policy. The survey results are important for a number of reasons: Media reports of growing xenophobia need to be systematically assessed through rigorous survey methods. In other words, how widespread is the reported intolerance and is it more pervasive amongst some groups than others? Internationally, people with more conservative attitudes, little travel experience, limited personal contact with foreigners, and lower socio-economic status tend to be more intolerant than others. The question is whether this is also true in Botswana; Assuming that no government wishes to promote or condone xenophobia, a survey of this nature can provide important insights into the causes and dimensions of intolerance and assist government in formulating appropriate responses, including public education campaigns; A survey of citizen attitudes shows exactly how well-informed people actually are. Xenophobia is often based on misinformation and stereotyping. What images do Batswana hold of immigrants, migrants and refugees? How aware are they of the ideal of refugee protection and the government’s international commitments to the UN and OAU conventions? Skilled foreign nationals who come legally to the country for periods of time need to feel that they are welcome. If they are not, as in South Africa, then they will cease to come which could have negative consequences for the national economy; The survey seeks to provide government with up-to-date information on the attitudes of their constituency towards current immigration policy and possible future options. How responsive, for example, are the citizens of Botswana to SADC proposals for softer borders within the region

Культурно-освітня складова діяльності кримськотатарської спільноти в Україні

Проаналізовано політику Української держави щодо відродження національної культури, захисту прав і свобод кримськотатарського населення України. Проаналізовано стан культурно-освітнього розвитку кримськотатарської спільноти в Україні. Визначено завдання культурно-освітньої політики України щодо досягнення міжетнічної гармонії та етнокультурної рівноваги в Криму. Запропоновано вирішувати етнокультурні проблеми Криму в межах мультикультуралізму, поважного і позитивного ставлення до різних етнокультурних груп і добровільної орієнтації соціальних інститутів суспільства на їх потреби.The policy of the Ukrainian state in relation to the revival of national culture, defence of rights and freedoms of Crimean tatars population is analysed. Cultural and educational development of Crimean tatars community status in Ukraine is analysed. Task of cultural and educational policy of Ukraine in relation to achievement of interethnic harmony and ethnic-cultural equilibrium in Crimea is shown. To settle the ethnic-cultural problems of Crimea within the limits of multiculturalism, worthy and positive attitude toward different ethnic-cultural groups and voluntarily orientation of social institutes of society on their necessities

No. 19: Botswana: Migration Perspectives and Prospects

The Southern African Migration Project (SAMP) is committed to supporting basic research on the dimensions, causes and consequences of cross-border and internal migration within the SADC region and to making the results accessible to a range of partners. We believe that a well-informed policy-maker or official is more likely to appreciate the workability of policy choices in the area of migration and immigration management. Policies based on poor or misleading information will not only fail but could have negative unintended consequences. From a human rights perspective, we are concerned that without accurate information about migration, decisions may be made which will violate constitutional guarantees and arouse public hostility towards non-citizens. SAMP is also committed to conducting policy research at a regional scale. Research in one country, such as Botswana, can be systematically compared with the results from other SADC countries to highlight similarities and differences, and to ascertain the degree to which governments face similar challenges of migrant management and treatment. The information can also be useful to civil society and NGO’s as they attempt to deal with the challenges of migrant integration and xenophobia. Economic data on migration impacts can be invaluable to a wide range of actors, including government and the private sector. Ultimately, the successful management of migration in Southern Africa depends on inter-governmental cooperation in data collection and policy harmonization. This is a long-term goal which has been temporarily stalled by the legitimate opposition of governments to moving too far, too fast. The SADC Draft Protocol on the Free Movement of Persons and its more restrictive successor, the SADC Draft Protocol on the Facilitation of Movement, have both floundered and there is little immediate likelihood of a Protocol that it equally acceptable to all SADC states. SAMP believes that the next step, before such a debate is re-initiated, is to gather reliable and accurate data on the volumes, trends, causes, impacts and remedies of migration at a regional scale. Only then can there be informed debate and forward movement on regional harmonization. Botswana is a country with an unusually rich migration history. Batswana men and women have been migrating across colonial and international borders for decades for a multiplicity of reasons. Within the country, post-independence economic development and growth has been accompanied by rapid urbanization. Botswana’s current levels of urbanization make it one of the most urbanized countries within the SADC. As in many countries of the region, the monitoring of these processes through the ongoing collection of migration and immigration statistics is a challenging task. Botswana’s last census was in 1991 and there have been significant changes in migration movements and trends since that time. In this respect, the research community can play a vital role in supplementing official and census data collection with sound and representative inter-censual surveys of citizens and non-citizens, migrants and non-migrants. Botswana has a long and vigorous tradition of migration research. This began with the work of the noted anthropologist Isaac Schapera in the 1930s and 1940s, work that is still consulted by researchers today. Botswana’s pre-colonial and colonial history of internal and cross-border migration has now been well-documented. In the post-independence period, there have been regular contributions to understanding contemporary patterns and dynamics of internal and cross-border migration. The most notable enterprise was the Botswana National Migration Survey in 1979. This project provided an exhaustive analysis of migration within and from Botswana in the late 1970s. Since that time, most researchers have relied on data from the 1981 and 1991 censuses, supplemented by local area and sample surveys. Twenty years have passed since the NMS was conducted. The census data shows that the changes since that time have been dramatic. Much less in known about the changes since 1991. In an effort to provide the government and people of Botswana with basic, up-to-date information on migration trends, volumes, impacts, and attitudes, in 1997 SAMP entered into a research partnership with the International Training Programme in Population and Sustainable Development at the University of Botswana. This publication represents the first phase of this ongoing collaboration. It brings together the research findings from three national surveys of migration attitudes and behaviours undertaken in Botswana in 1997 and 1998. These were: (a) a national random sample survey of Batswana resident in Botswana at the time of the survey; (b) a sample survey of potential skilled Batswana migrants and emigrants; and (c) a survey of skilled and professional foreign citizens currently resident in Botswana. This first chapter in this publication, by Professor John Oucho, provides an invaluable background overview of domestic and migration trends in Botswana from 1981 to the present. He stresses the importance of accurate classification and definition of what he calls inward and outward migration. These distinctions are vital since different forms of migration are motivated by different dynamics and require a differentiated policy response. Professor Oucho demonstrates that Botswana’s recent migration history has been profoundly shaped by its vibrant economy and political system. Botswana sends out proportionately fewer migrants for work outside the country than other SADC states and is also a major recipient of legal skilled and professional migrants (and increasing numbers of undocumented migrants). As a migrant “sending and receiving” country, Botswana faces particular dilemmas and challenges. Botswana’s strategic recruiting and utilization of foreign skills is a forward-looking model for other countries in the region. There is always a danger, however, that unauthorized migrants will become the scapegoat for social problems (as has happened in South Africa) and that they will be treated with growing intolerance. This can only be countered if there is accurate information on the nature and impact of undocumented migration. What must also be a concern is the way in which South Africa treats Batswana citizens. Professor Oucho shows that the volume of cross-border traffic between Botswana and South Africa has now increased to over two million crossings a year. Significant numbers of Batswana are overstaying their permits in South Africa. So far, the South African government has not responded as harshly to unauthorized Batswana as it has to Mozambicans and Zimbabweans. But that could quickly change. It is in Botswana’s interests that migrants do not fall foul of South African immigration regulations. The paper by Professor Oucho is based primarily on official statistics and census data. This also helps us to appreciate that there are significant gaps in official data collection and knowledge on migration and immigration, particularly for the 1990s. After the next census we will be in a good position to assess the changes of this inter-censual period. However, the three SAMP/University of Botswana surveys undertaken in Botswana to date provide a new and vital national picture of the migration situation at the end of the 1990s. These surveys are in the tradition of the earlier NMS and are the first round of what we anticipate will be an ongoing migration research enterprise in Botswana. The second chapter by Elizabeth Mukamaambo presents the results of the first survey. This survey instrument – SAMP’s Five Nations Public Opinion Survey – has previously been administered in Lesotho, Mozambique, Namibia and Zimbabwe. The results of these surveys can be consulted elsewhere. Her chapter draws on this massive migration data base to contrast the Botswana experience with that of other SADC countries. In general the findings about Batswana migration behaviour and attitudes are similar to those of other SADC countries, with minor variations. For example, more than 40% of Batswana have been to South Africa at some point (comparable to Namibians but less than Mozambicans and Basotho). Many go often and for short visits of less than a month. Like migrants from other countries, they go for a variety of reasons but mainly shopping and visiting. However, relatively few Batswana (10%) went to work or to look for work on their last visit to South Africa. This is the lowest figure amongst the five countries surveyed. Also of interest is the evidence of considerable cross-border traffic between Botswana and its eastern neighbour, Zimbabwe. Batswana migrants are extremely law-abiding and respectful of international ports of entry. The vast majority enter South Africa legally and with proper papers. They show little interest in permanent residence or South African citizenship. In fact, Botswana is seen to be a much better place to live across a range of indicators. The chapter concludes by recommending that policy-makers in Botswana, South Africa and Zimbabwe take these results seriously and devise systems of management that do not obstruct such legal and economically constructive movements of people. The third chapter by Dr Eugene Campbell focuses on a sub-set of Batswana – the skilled and professional class. Using a mail-out survey of a representative sample of skilled Batswana from the private and public sectors, Dr Campbell assesses their satisfaction with conditions in Botswana and the likelihood of their leaving temporarily or emigrating permanently. The basic question is whether Botswana is experiencing or is likely to experience a “brain drain” in the near future. The survey showed that skilled Batswana have a significant “emigration potential.” Over 40% have given some or a great deal of thought to moving to another country. Nearly 60% expressed a desire to leave the country for up to two years; and 30% said it was likely that they would leave for more than two years. When asked about the time frame, however, only 3% said it was likely or very likely they would leave in the next five years. The preferred destination is the United States (27%) followed by South Africa (21%). The desire to move has little to do with alienation or dissatisfaction with Botswana. Most are intensely patriotic, trustful of the national government and committed to the development of their country. Only a handful would ever contemplate giving up Botswana citizenship. What skilled Batswana are interested in is not permanent emigration. But they are interested in leaving for further study, to better their qualifications or for personal economic advantage, such as lower taxation or higher wages. Domestic unemployment hardly emerged as a “push factor”, underscoring the high levels of job assurance for skilled nationals in Botswana. This could, of course, change rapidly if Botswana went through tougher economic times. As Dr Campbell concludes, “skilled migration is only going to grow and the government of Botswana would be well advised to address these issues in a proactive, rather than reactive, manner.” The final chapter by John Oucho visits the question of skilled expatriates in Botswana. This is the first survey of its kind in Botswana. In many countries, this is a very delicate political issue. Although there was some understandable wariness on the part of respondents, the participation rate was sufficient to allow some general conclusions to be made. The expatriates occupy a range of posts in both the private and public sector, come from an array of (primarily African) countries, and are significant earners by local standards. The overwhelming majority say that Botswana offers a better quality of life than in their own country. What is striking about Botswana (compared say with South Africa where skilled foreign Africans complain bitterly about their treatment by ordinary South Africans) is the lack of conflict and antagonism with locals. The vast majority of expatriates feel they are accepted and valued and report good relations with Batswana. Although the vast majority of expatriates are classified and treated as temporary residents, many desire a more permanent commitment. As many as half are interested in becoming permanent residents of Botswana and a third are even interested in renouncing their citizenship and becoming citizens of Botswana. These are noteworthy findings and demonstrate the commitment of many “expatriates” to what they increasingly see as their “adopted country.” Few countries within SADC promote permanent immigration and few have expatriates willing to put down roots. In Botswana, there is clearly a case for examining whether there would be advantages to securing the permanent commitment of this group of highly skilled people. In general, SAMP and its partners trust that the results of the surveys reported here will help government and civil society in Botswana to construct the knowledge base about migration that is urgently needed. These findings clearly reveal the distinctiveness of the Botswana experience with in and out migration. However, Botswana also shares many policy concerns and dilemmas about migration with its neighbour states. International experience shows that effective migration management is not something that a state can unilaterally implement. A renewed cooperative, regional, and harmonized approach (based on sound and reliable migration data and analysis) within SADC is therefore essential. This publication is designed to provide the people and government of Botswana with the information to advance confidently towards that goal

Poverty, youth and rural-urban migration in Ethiopia

This paper explores the relationships between poverty and rural-urban migration in Ethiopia. It draws upon research particularly of migration for work in the construction industry and domestic work. The paper describes and analyses migration from a poor rural woreda (district) in northern Ethiopia, to the nearby city of Bahir Dar and the capital, Addis Ababa. Extreme poverty is one of the main driving factors behind these flows of migration. Our research suggests that migration of this type does not lead to immediate flows of remittance income from migrants to their households. We explain why this is, and how migrants and their households nevertheless plan to move out of poverty. We argue that there are important non-economic factors and long-term strategies that encourage migration even where working conditions are hard and returns are low

Population and its implications for resource development in the Lake Victoria Basin

The Lake Victoria Basin population cluster is the most distinctive and largest population region in the Kenya, smaller concentrations being found in central and coastal parts of the country. It is generally a densely settled area where rapid population growth and its inherent features pose considerable challenge to the relatively undeveloped resource base in the region. Despite its potentialities the lake basin has remained an economic back-water, thereby engendering out-migration to other more developed parts of the country. With the recent proclamation of the Lake Victoria Basin Development Authority (L.V.B.D.A.) the importance of "water resource" has been underscored, and it is everybody's expectation that a workable framework will be instituted to foster carefully planned development in the "catchment area" of the lake basin. This paper examines the population factor in developing this and other closely related resources. First and foremost, the paper portrays the demographic background, placing special emphasis on population distribution and density; its structure in demographic and socio-economic terms; population movements and its determinants; and the urban hierarchy on which spatial physical planning has been modelled with little success in the region. In the second part of the paper, this demographic background is focussed on the L.V.B.D.A. in order to explore possibilities of regulating demographic trends and characteristics to suit planning and development within the framework of the L.V.B.D.A. In the final analysis, the paper contends that the population factor is most crucial, and that drastic changes are inevitable if the L.V.B.D.A. is or be seen, to effect development in the region. But micro-differences in the lake basin districts will necessitate their classification in an attempt to design their development against demographic - ecological realities

Immigrants’ and refugees’ unmet reproductive health demands in Botswana: Perceptions of public healthcare providers

Background: The healthcare of Batswana (citizens of Botswana) as indicated in the country’s Vision 2016 is one of the top priorities of the government of Botswana, yet Botswana’s National Health Policy, the Immigration Policy and the National Sexual and Reproductive Health Programme Framework all are silent on the obligations of the government to provide health services to the immigrant and refugee population. In view of the high prevalence of HIV/AIDS in Botswana, South Africa and other sub-Saharan countries, it is critical that reproductive health services be as affordable and accessible for the immigrants and refugees as they are for other residents in Botswana.This study measured the views of the primary healthcare providers in Botswana on the perceived reproductive health needs of immigrants andrefugees and the availability and accessibility of reproductive healthcare services to the immigrant and refugee populations in the country. Thisinformation will be important for policy makers, the government of Botswana and the private sector to shape intervention measures to assistimmigrants and refugees in seeking and accessing the desired reproductive health services.Methods: The study targeted all 4 667 medical doctors and nurses who were serving in various hospitals and clinics in 23 health districts ofBotswana as at June 2005 when this study was conducted. Using NCS Pearson statistical software, the sample size for the study was determined to be 851. This estimated sample size was allocated to the 23 health districts (strata) using probability proportional to size (PPS). Having obtained the sample size for each district, the healthcare providers to be interviewed from each health district were selected randomly and in proportion to the number of doctors and nurses in each district.Questionnaires were administered to these healthcare providers by research assistants, who explained the purpose of the study and obtainedinformed consent. The questionnaires were coded to ensure the anonymity of the respondents. It contained questions about the healthcare providers’demographic characteristics, their opinions on the reproductive health needs of immigrants and refugees, and their views on factors that influence the accessibility of these services to immigrants and refugees. Data were collected from 678 doctors and nurses (about 80% of the targeted sample).Results: The majority of the healthcare providers indicated that the most important reproductive health needs of the immigrants and refugees, namely pregnancy-related services (prenatal, obstetrics, postnatal conditions), treatment for sexually transmitted infections (STIs), HIV/AIDS treatment and counselling and family planning were not different from those of the locals. However, some major differences noted between the local population and the foreigners were (i) that antiretroviral (ARV) treatment and prevention of mother-to-child-transmission (PMTCT) programmes were never accessible to the non-citizens; and (ii) that while treatments and other health services were free to Batswana, a fee was charged to non-citizens.Although 86% of the 21 studied reproductive health services were available in the healthcare system more than 50% of the time, only 62% of themwere accessible to the immigrants and refugees 50% of the time. The major reasons for inability to access these services were: (i) The immigrants and refugees have to pay higher fees to access the reproductive health services; (ii) Once an immigrant or refugee is identified as HIV positive, there are no further follow-ups on the patient such as detecting the immune status using a CD4 count or testing the viral load; (iii) The immigrants and refugees do not have referral rights to referral clinics/hospitals for follow-ups in case of certain health conditions; and (iv) The immigrants and refugees are required to join a medical aid scheme to help offset part of the costs for the desired services.Conclusions: The study recommended that the government of Botswana should improve the availability of reproductive health services to immigrants and refugees, and expunge those laws and practices that make it difficult for immigrants and refugees to access the available reproductive health services

Migration decision-making of Kenyan and Nigerian women in London : the influence of culture, family and networks

This thesis is about the migration decision-making experiences of Kenyan and Nigerian women migrants in London. Its aim was to investigate the influence of culture, family and networks on the women’s decision to migrate. The study used in-depth interviews and focus group discussions (FGDs) to gather data. The four theories of migration decision-making used to illuminate the data and understand the women’s experiences were: value expectancy theory; place utility model; network and system theories. The results revealed that the sociocultural expectations of women in Nigerian societies influenced the migration decisions of some Nigerian women. It was a migration motive for some women who were stereotyped by gender in their society of origin and it was also a part of the migration decision-making negotiations, within households, especially between spouses. This was not true of Kenyan women who were least affected by gendered sociocultural expectations in their society of origin. Children also indirectly influenced the decision-making of married and single mothers. Single mothers focused almost exclusively on the needs of their children, whereas married women accommodated both their children and spouses’ interests. Young single women were more likely to discuss their migration plans with their parents, but for a few, migration had to be negotiated before taking a decision. The results also indicated that the women studied used various types of networks, linked differently, within a migration system. Women were interested in the type and quality of the information provided by their network(s) rather than in its gendered nature. Finally the findings also showed that the idea of ‘gendered information’ exists whereby certain information is given specifically to men or exclusively to women depending on the recipient’s life stage and reasons for migrating. This study contributes to the small body of literature on women’s migration decision-making while adding new knowledge about what influences decision making among women from two African countries. It lays foundations for further research case studies on factors affecting African women’s migration decision-making

No. 28:Changing Attitudes to Immigration and Refugee Policy in Botswana

For the last two decades, Botswana has had the reputation as a “country of immigration,” based on the large-scale import of skilled expatriates from Africa, Asia and the West. Successive census reports and immigration data, as well as previous SAMP surveys undertaken in the late 1990s, confirm the appropriateness of the designation. The SAMP surveys concentrated on three themes: (a) the attitudes and migration behaviour of skilled foreigners in the country; (b) the attitudes of Batswana towards cross-border migration to South Africa; and (c) the emigration potential of skilled Batswana. The surveys highlighted the tolerant and generally welcoming attitude prevailing in Botswana towards outsiders.Since those studies, however, the migration scene has changed considerably, with intolerance towards non-citizens growing in a country where it was unknown only a few years earlier. Against this background, the University of Botswana mounted the SAMP National Immigration Policy Survey (NIPS) in Botswana in 2001. This survey delved into areas not systematically considered in the earlier surveys: (a) citizen perceptions of immigrants, migrants and refugees groups and (b) attitudes towards Botswana’s own national immigration policy. The survey results are important for a number of reasons: Media reports of growing xenophobia need to be systematically assessed through rigorous survey methods. In other words, how widespread is the reported intolerance and is it more pervasive amongst some groups than others? Internationally, people with more conservative attitudes, little travel experience, limited personal contact with foreigners, and lower socio-economic status tend to be more intolerant than others. The question is whether this is also true in Botswana; Assuming that no government wishes to promote or condone xenophobia, a survey of this nature can provide important insights into the causes and dimensions of intolerance and assist government in formulating appropriate responses, including public education campaigns; A survey of citizen attitudes shows exactly how well-informed people actually are. Xenophobia is often based on misinformation and stereotyping. What images do Batswana hold of immigrants, migrants and refugees? How aware are they of the ideal of refugee protection and the government’s international commitments to the UN and OAU conventions? Skilled foreign nationals who come legally to the country for periods of time need to feel that they are welcome. If they are not, as in South Africa, then they will cease to come which could have negative consequences for the national economy; The survey seeks to provide government with up-to-date information on the attitudes of their constituency towards current immigration policy and possible future options. How responsive, for example, are the citizens of Botswana to SADC proposals for softer borders within the region