Urinary pesticide mixture patterns and exposure determinants in the adult population from the Netherlands and Switzerland : Application of a suspect screening approach

INTRODUCTION: Non-occupational sources of pesticide exposure may include domestic pesticide usage, diet, occupational exposure of household members, and agricultural activities in the residential area. We conducted a study with the ambition to characterize pesticide mixture patterns in a sample of the adult population of the Netherlands and Switzerland, using a suspect screening approach and to identify related exposure determinants. METHODS: A total of 105 and 295 adults participated in the Dutch and Swiss studies, respectively. First morning void urine samples were collected and analyzed in the same laboratory. Harmonized questionnaires about personal characteristics, pesticide-related activities, and diet were administered. Detection rates and co-occurrence patterns were calculated to explore internal pesticide exposure patterns. Censored linear and logistic regression models were constructed to investigate the association between exposure and domestic pesticide usage, consumption of homegrown and organic foods, household members' exposure, and distance to agricultural and forest areas. RESULTS: From the 37 detected biomarkers, 3 (acetamiprid (-CH2), chlorpropham (4-HSA), and flonicamid (-C2HN)) were detected in ≥40% of samples. The most frequent combination of biomarkers (acetamiprid-flonicamid) was detected in 22 (5.5%) samples. Regression models revealed an inverse association between high organic vegetable and fruit consumption and exposure to acetamiprid, chlorpropham, propamocarb (+O), and pyrimethanil (+O + SO3). Within-individual correlations in repeated samples (summer/winter) from the Netherlands were low (≤0.3), and no seasonal differences in average exposures were observed in Switzerland. CONCLUSION: High consumption of organic fruit and vegetables was associated with lower pesticide exposure. In the two countries, detection rates and co-occurrence were typically low, and within-person variability was high. Our study results provide an indication for target biomarkers to include in future studies aimed at quantifying urinary exposure levels in European adult populations