Traveler’s Infections: Overview of Hepatitis B Virus Infection

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a double-stranded circular DNA virus that infects the hepatocytes. HBV infection is considered as an important public health concern globally especially with one-third of the world’s population been infected. Local and international migrants are one of those population at high risk of the infection. Many factors interplay in the acquisition of HBV such as purpose of travel, destination endemicity rate of the virus, time of stay of the traveler, inadequate prevention and control measures, among others, understanding the genotypes of HBV is critical in correlating the evolution of the virus and migration of humans and also treatment responses of infected population. The symptom of the virus ranges from fever to jaundice and to a liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Transmission of HBV is commonly via horizontal route in developing regions and in the developed regions; transmission occur more often among adults that use injectable drugs and high-risk sexual behaviors. Therefore, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and World Health Organization (WHO) have recommended HBV screening and vaccination to all travelers without an HBV immunization history before traveling to endemic regions. This chapter gives an overview on HBV as a potential traveler’s infection

A Reemerging Lassa Virus: Aspects of Its Structure, Replication, Pathogenicity and Diagnosis

Lassa virus is a linear, bisegmented, single-stranded RNA virus, which belong to the Arenaviridae family that causes viral hemorrhagic fever transmitted by rats. The virus is endemic in West African countries, which may be due to its zoonotic nature. Lassa virus infection occurs through contact with the vector Mastomys natalensis or infected humans and can lead to wide symptoms from a mild infection to Lassa fever and to a severe fatal viral hemorrhagic fever, which include delayed cellular immunity resulting to fulminant viremia. The virus replicates through a strategy known as the Ambisense, where two RNA strands code for genes in both the sense and antisense direction that is rapid and demonstrate temporal control in replication. Different diagnostic tests for the virus are available, which range from viral culture to serological and molecular diagnostic tests. There is an urgent need to develop drugs and vaccines against the virus because the World Health Organization (WHO) has identified Lassa virus as one of the viruses that is likely to cause a future epidemic, although a research is ongoing to evaluate Lassa virus vaccine immunogenicity in the CBA/J-ML29 mouse model. This chapter gives an overview on the structure, replication cycle, pathogenesis, and diagnosis of the virus

Traveler’s Infections: Understanding SARS-CoV-2 as a Potential Agent

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has become a major, global, public health challenge. More than 1,051,635 confirmed cases (and counting) have been reported worldwide, thus far, and both local and international travelers are considered to represent populations at high risk of acquiring the infection. Many factors are involved in the spread of this viral agent, including travel to and from endemic areas, a history of contact with a traveler from an endemic country, the virus infection rate at the destination, individual health, and inadequate prevention and control measures. COVID-19 symptoms range from fever and cough to difficulty breathing, and more severe cases can present with pneumonia and multi-organ failure. The virus is thought to be transmitted through large respiratory droplets, generated by coughing or sneezing and transmitted through close contact with infected persons or contaminated surfaces. Diagnostic strategies include the assays for the detection of antiviral antibodies, multiplex nucleic acid amplification, and microarray-based assays. Currently, no approved antiviral therapy or vaccine exists to treat or prevent the infection. Public health measures, such as quarantine, have been enforced, to slow the community spread of the virus, by governments, worldwide. The World Health Organization (WHO) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) have recommended COVID-19 infection screening be performed at airports, for all travelers, before traveling to endemic countries and the restriction of travel to countries more than one thousand cases of infection. In response to the global outbreak, this review examines COVID-19 as a potential traveler’s infection

Seroprevalence of Hepatitis B and C Viruses among Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infected Patients Accessing Healthcare in Federal Medical Centre, Keffi, Nigeria

Infections of Hepatitis B and C viruses among seropositive Human immunodeficiency virus patients are a growing public health problem in Sub Saharan Africa characterized by unaffordable treatment, severe morbidity and associated mortality. This study was aimed at evaluating the seroprevalence of Hepatitis B and C viruses among HIV infected patients accessing health care at Federal Medical Centre, Keffi, Nigeria. The cross-sectional study took place between May-July 2016. A total of 200 blood samples were collected from HIV patients after informed consent and self-administered questionnaires were completed. The samples were centrifuged and the serum screened for HBV and HCV using the immunochromatographic technique. A general prevalence of infection with hepatitis B and C viruses in the study population was 17.5%. The prevalence of HBV infection was 12.5% while HCV was 5.0%. Females have higher infection rates for both viruses (p > 0.05). HBV infection was highest among those aged 20-29 years (14.3%) and lowest among those aged 30-39 years (6.5%). HCV infection was highest among those aged > 40 years (8.7%) and least among those aged 30-39 years (0.0%). Infection rates with blood transfusion, smoking habit, scarification marks and alcohol intake as risk factors were more for HBV than HCV (p > 0.05). The HIV/HBV and HIV/HCV coinfection prevalence of 12.5% and 5.0% respectively is a cause for concern. This finding underscores the urgent need for more proactive HBV immunization programs and screening of HIV patients for HBV and HCV before and even during antiretroviral therapy. Health education against these silent killers should also be advocated

Human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV-16) IgG antibody among women of reproductive age presenting at a healthcare facility in Central Nigeria: a pilot study

Approximately, 70% of cervical cancer cases worldwide are attributable to HPV-16 and HPV-18, with HPV-associated cancers being the second most common infection-related cancers globally. However, there´s paucity of data about this infective agent in Central Nigeria. In a cross-sectional study, we evaluated the seroprevalence of HPV-16 immunoglobulin G (IgG) and risk determinants among women in Central Nigeria as a first step towards evaluating anti-HPV IgM antibody for active cases and determining incidence. Blood samples were collected between August 2016 and January 2018, from 400 consenting women of childbearing age (15-49 years) who completed structured questionnaires. Samples were analyzed using HPV-16 specific IgG ELISA kits (Cusabio Co. Ltd, Germany). Statistical analysis was performed to determine predictors. Overall, we found that 128 (32.0%) had IgG antibody against HPV-16. Seroprevalence by age was 50.0% (15-19 years), 55.0% (20-24 years), 12.9% (25-29 years), 50.0% (30-34 years), 32.1% (35-39 years), 18.2% (40-44 years) and 19.4% (45-49 years) respectively. Factors associated with infection were age (P=0.0002; 95% CI 5.06-31.51), occupation (P<0.0001; 95% CI 1.4-12.6), number of sex partners (P=0.0037; 95% CI 1.27-49.93), history of genital warts (P=0.0203; 95% CI 1.34-9.55) and education level (P<0.0001; 95% CI 3.89-60.11). In addition, forty six (11.5%) reported having the history of genital warts with 268 (67.0%) and 132 (33.0%) subjects being married and single respectively. Individuals who were either artisans or civil servants were 260 (65.0%), whereas 140 (35.0%) were students. Majority, 324 (81.0%), had either primary, secondary or tertiary education with 76 (19.0%) of the subjects having no formal education. In respect of sexual behaviour, 196 (49.0%) reported having at least two sexual partners, out of which 64 (16.0%) had three or more. These findings provide high serological evidence of exposure to HPV-16 in Central Nigeria with implications for national and regional intervention initiatives

Seroprevalence of Hepatitis B and C Viruses among Eligible Blood Donors in a Tertiary Healthcare Facility in Nasarawa State, Nigeria

The prevalence of blood borne viral infections such as Hepatitis B and C viruses is a public health problem. Screening blood donors is needed to prevent further spread of such infections. The current study aimed to evaluate the seroprevalence of hepatitis B and C viruses among eligible blood donors in a tertiary healthcare facility in Nasarawa State, Nigeria. A cross-sectional survey was conducted on eligible blood donors attending the Heamatological Unit of Federal Medical Centre, Keffi, Nigeria. One hundred blood donors were screened for ABO blood groups using white plain tile. Hepatitis B and C seromarkers were further screened using a rapid test kits (ACON Laboratories Inc, USA). Informed consent and completed self-administered questionnaires on their socio-demographics and exposure to some possible risk factors were obtained. A general prevalence of infections with hepatitis B and C viruses in the study population was 21.0%. The prevalence of HBV was 14.0% while HCV was 7.0% and no blood donor was coinfected with the 2 viruses. However, in this study, gender, age, marital status, occupation, blood group and history of blood transfusion had no statistically significant association with Hepatitis B and C viral infections (p > 0.05). The 21.0% infection rate reported in this population is a cause for alert because it means there is a high viral reservoir in the area. Measures such as more sensitive techniques, immunization and health education must be advocated in the study area

Exploration of traditional beliefs about human immunodeficiency virus and associated stigma among black Africans in the UK: a pilot study with implication for practice in Africa

Background: In the UK, black Africans account for the most affected ethnic population with HIV. Black Africans hold traditional beliefs which have been reported to cause certain misconceptions about the cause of HIV. Also, despite being in a developed country like the UK, it has been noted that Black Africans still hold these beliefs. This study was aimed at exploring the influence of traditional beliefs about the cause of HIV and HIV related stigma among Black Africans in the diaspora.Methods: Semi structured interviews were conducted among six individuals (M-4, F-2), three of which were people living with HIV (PLHIV). Participants were selected purposively. The study included male and/or female English-speaking Black Africans who were 18 years+ and not born in the UK but had migrated to live there.Results: The resulting data was analysed thematically, and three themes were developed: “…God created disease as a punishment for mankind…”: Punishment from God, “…witches, they can make HIV…”: HIV as related to witchcraft and “hanging on to traditional beliefs thus mistreating people with HIV”: Traditional African beliefs cause stigma.Conclusions: The main finding of this study reveals that participants who are knowledgeable about HIV still hold traditional beliefs about HIV. These beliefs are reported to exacerbate stigma against PLHIV. The study recommends that traditional beliefs should be prioritised when planning HIV prevention programs

PREVALENCE OF URINARY SCHISTOSOMIASIS AMONG PRIMARY SCHOOL CHILDREN IN A NORTHERN NIGERIAN POPULATION

The study was carried out to determine the prevalence of Schistosoma haematobium among primary school pupil in Keffi Local Government Area of Nasarawa State, Nigeria. A total of 360 urine samples were collected. Samples were investigated using standard World Health Organization guidelines for identification of parasite and they were analyzed macroscopically and microscopically. Out of the 360 children screened, Yelwa Primary School had a prevalence rate of 2%, ECWA Transfer Primary School had a prevalence rate of 8%, Majema Primary School had a prevalence rate of 15%, Baptist Primary School had a prevalence rate of 10%, Kofar Hausa Primary School had a prevalence rate of 12% and Saint Williams Primary School had a prevalence rate of 6% while the overall prevalence of Schistosoma haematobium in the six schools is 53%.There was no significant difference in the prevalence rate between the six primary schools (P>0.05) Children of age group (5-8year) were more infected with urinary schistosoma. Male had higher prevalence of Schistosoma haematobium (34%) than the female (19%). statistically there was significant different in prevalence infection of Schistosoma haematobium among males and females investigated. Children whose parents are farmers and fishermen had the highest prevalence infection, followed by Artisan, Civil servant and the Businessmen respectively. However, the overall total pupils infected is 88% and uninfected 511%. Conclusively, School based treatment campaign and health education should be encouraged in ensuring the prevention and control of the disease in Nigeria

<em>Helicobacter pylori</em> Seromarkers in a University Students Population in Central Nigeria

Infection due to Helicobacter pylori is a public health challenge worldwide as over 3 billion persons are infected with the bacterium globally. There is a serious need to update the knowledge on the epidemiology of this bacterial pathogen and its probable risks factors to generate intervention programs that will reduce the morbidity and mortality of infected individuals. This chapter evaluated the seromarkers of H. pylori infection and its predisposing factors among students of Nasarawa State University, Keffi, Central Nigeria. This study was done between June through August 2019; blood and stool specimens were collected from 400 students of the institution. Before the commencement of the study, ethical clearance and informed consent were retrieved and a structured questionnaire was administered to each participant. Specimens were screened for H. pylori antigen and antibody using rapid test kits (CTK Biotech, Inc., San Diego, USA and Biotest Biotech, China). Information obtained were analyzed using SSP version 2.80. P values <0.05 were reflected statistically significant. Out of the 400 students tested, 166 (41.5%) and 128 (32.0%) showed positive for anti-H. pylori IgG and Ag markers respectively. The antibody seromarker was higher in female while the H. pylori antigen was higher in males. Those students aged 21–30 years old reported the highest prevalence of the seromarkers while those of more than 41 years old had the least prevalence. Location, type of toilet facility and place of residence were statistical associated between H. pylori antigen (P < 0.05). There was a statistically significant association between anti-H. pylori IgG and the sources of water of the students (P < 0.05). This is the first public report that has successfully reported the prevalence of these seromarkers among students of a tertiary institution in Nasarawa state. The overall outcomes of this study stressed the need for student-based intervention programs to stem the transmission of this infection in Nasarawa State, Nigeria

Off-grid electricity generation in Nigeria based on rice husk gasification technology

Nigeria is purely an agrarian nation and the people depend on agriculture for survival. One of the missing links to wealth creation in Nigeria is lack of economic exploitation of abundant agricultural wastes. Instead of wealth creation, rice husk has become a serious threat to the environment. The unutilized rice husks in rice mills in Nigeria generate millions of tons of C02 when burnt. This increases environmental degradation and deaths associated with respiratory diseases. The sustainable use of this rice husk for bioenergy applications such as electricity generation at low cost, to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions is imperative. In this paper, an off-grid gasification power supply option for Adani, in Uzo-Uwani Local Government Area of Enugu state, of eastern Nigeria is presented. A detailed load assessment and availability of rice husk for power generation in the study area was conducted. This information was used to design the gasification system. The gasification system was designed based on the mass flow rate of producer gas required to power the gas engine at full load. The gasifier was designed downdraft with air and steam as the oxidizing agent, in order to maintain uniform temperature in the oxidation and reduction zones. Furthermore, techno-economic analysis approach was used to determine the economic viability of the designed power system considered in this study. The estimated total load demand of the study area is 850.054kW. The estimated total daily, monthly and yearly energy demands of the study area are: 8,991 ​kWh, 269,736.42 ​kWh and 3,236,837.04 ​kWh. The annual availability of rice husk in the study area is 3,636t/y and it has potential of 1.52MW power generation with daily, monthly and yearly energy generation of: 36.48 ​MWh, 1,094.4 ​MWh and 13,132.8 ​MWh. This potential of electricity generation has power station capacity of 1.9 MVA, which is approximately equal to 2 MVA. The Levelized Cost of Electricity of the designed power system is 3.6 Naira/kWh, which is cheaper than 30.93 Naira/kWh tariff bill by Enugu Electricity Distribution Company to its R2S customers. Based on the proposed rice husk gasification system, a community could generate power to meet their electricity demand in most economical way, thereby reducing emission, waste and saving cost translating to sustainable development