Studies on warfarin treatment with emphasis on inter-individual variations and drug monitoring

Waran används sedan 60 år som blodförtunnande läkemedel för att förebygga eller förhindra progress av blodproppssjukdom. I Sverige behandlas årligen cirka 1 % av befolkningen med waran. I Östergötland uppskattas antal waranpatienter till cirka 3000. Waran hämmar enzymet VKORC1 som ansvarar för vitamin K omsättningen i kroppen. Vitamin K behövs som kofaktor för flera koagulationsfaktorer. Behandling med waran är förenad med en svår balansgång och kräver en noggrann dosering. Stora skillnader i dosbehov mellan olika individer, beroende på ärftliga och miljöfaktorer, gör waran till ett svårhanterligt läkemedel. För låg dos medför otillräcklig effekt och därmed risk för minskat skydd mot blodproppssjukdom. För hög dos leder till allvarliga blödningskomplikationer. Uppskattningsvis 1 – 3 % livshotande blödningsfall registreras årligen efter waranbehandling. Därför måste behandlingen kontrolleras noga med analys av protrombinkomplex (PK) och dosjusteringar göras med ledning av resultaten. Två olika metoder finns att använda för mätning av PK. I Norden och i Japan används Owrens metod (utvecklat i Norge under 40- och 50-talet av Paul Owren). I de flesta andra länder används Quickmetoden (utvecklat i USA under 30-talet av Armand Quick). Den senare metoden är förenad med stora variationer mellan olika analyslaboratorier. I Norden, däremot, där Owrens metod används finns det ofta bra överensstämmelse mellan olika laboratorier i PK-resultat. Beroende på vilken PK-metod som används, kan samma patient få olika warandoser vilket ökar risker för under- eller överbehandling. Vi har i samarbete med flera sjukhus och antikoagulationsmottagningar (AK-mottagningar) i sydöstra Sverige studerat dels mekanismerna bakom skillnader i warandos mellan olika patienter, och dels tittat varför de olika PK-metoder skiljer sig så mycket som de gör. I studien har vi identifierat genetiska varianter av enzymet VKORC1. Av de undersökta patienter som gick på waran under längre tid, har vi identifierat en grupp som markant skiljde sig från de övriga. Denna grupp hade warandoser som var betydligt lägre än de övriga. När vi kartlade deras arvsmassa, fann vi att lågdospatienterna hade genvarianten VKORC1*2. Dessutom hade patienter med denna variant svårigheter att få stabila PK-värden. De gjorde också fler besök på AK-mottagningar än andra patienter. Vi har därför konstaterat att en del av de problem som är förenade med waranbehnadlingen kan förklaras av VKORC1*2 varianten. Vetskap om denna variant skulle troligen underlätta behandlingen framför allt under inledningsfasen då patienter med VKORC1*2 riskerar blödningar på grund av överdosering. Vi har identifierat att provförspädning enligt Owrens metod är nödvändig för harmonisering av PK-resultatet mellan olika länder. Quickmetoden använder inte förspädning av patientprov till skillnad från Owrens metod. När vi modifierade en Quickmetod genom att förspäda prover enligt Owrens metod noterade vi en bra överensstämmelse mellan de två olika metoderna. Däremot var resultatet sämre utan provförspädning. Vi anser att Quickmetoder kan uppnå lika bra resultat som Owrens metod om prover förspäds som i Owrens metod. Det skulle gynna patienter som reser mellan olika regioner eller länder och leda till en bättre övervakning av waranbehandling internationellt. I studien har dessutom en metod för mätning av waran i blodet utvecklats. Metoden som är den enda i sitt slag i Norden ger möjlighet att studera hur läkemedlet beter sig i kroppen. Vi har med denna metod kunnat upptäcka patienter som har onormala nedbrytningar av waran.Warfarin was introduced more than 60 years ago and is used worldwide for the prophylaxis of arterial and venous thromboembolism in primary and secondary prevention. The drug is orally administered as a racemic mixture of (R)- and (S)-enantiomers. The (S)-form is mainly responsible for the anticoagulant effect and is metabolised by CYP2C9 enzyme in the liver microsomes. Warfarin exerts its pharmacological action by inhibiting the key enzyme (VKORC1) that regenerates vitamin K from an oxidised state to a reduced form. The latter is a cofactor for the post-translational modification of a number of proteins including coagulation factors II, VII, IX and X. The vitamin K-dependent modification provides these factors with the calcium-binding ability they require for the interaction with cell membranes of their target cells such as platelets. Warfarin is monitored by measuring prothrombin time (PT) expressed as INR. Two main methods exist for PT analysis. The Owren method is used mainly in the Nordic and Baltic countries, in Japan, whereas the Quick method is employed in most other countries. Warfarin management is associated with some complications. Unlike many other drugs the dose for a given patient cannot be estimated beforehand, dose-response relationship is not predictable, and the prevention of thrombosis must be balanced against the risk of bleeding. Furthermore, the different PT methods used to monitor the drug are sometimes not in agreement and show significant discrepancies in results. In an attempt to clarify the mechanisms influencing the inter-individual variations in warfarin therapy and to detect the factors that contribute to differences between PT methods, studies were conducted in collaboration with hospitals and anticoagulation clinics in the south-eastern region of Sweden. First, a stereo-specific HPLC method for measurement of warfarin enantiomers was developed and validated. With this method, the levels of plasma warfarin following its oral administration can be studied and evaluated. Abnormal clearance in some patients can be detected, and patient compliance can be verified. Furthermore, differing ratios of (S)- and (R)-isomers can be identified. The impact of common VKORC1 polymorphisms on warfarin therapy was investigated. This study has shown that the VKORC1*2 haplotype is an important genetic determinant for warfarin dosage and is associated with difficulties in attaining and retaining therapeutic PT-INR. Further, significant differences in warfarin S/R-ratio was detected between patients with VKORC1*2 and VKORC1*3 or VKORC1*4 variants. This difference was not coupled with CYP2C9 genotype. The effects of predilution of patient plasma samples, sources of thromboplastin and deficient plasma on between PT methods agreement were studied. This study has revealed that sample predilution according to the Owren method is to be preferred for the harmonisation of PT results. Undiluted samples, in contrast, according to the Quick method have shown reduced correlation between two different thromboplastin reagents. Sources of thromboplastin and deficient plasma were only of minor importance

Cross-ethnic analysis of common gene variants in hemostasis show lopsided representation of global populations in genetic databases

A majority of studies reporting human genetic variants were performed in populations of European ancestry whereas other global populations, and particularly many ethnolinguistic groups in other continents, are heavily underrepresented in these studies. To investigate the extent of this disproportionate representation of global populations concerning variants of significance to thrombosis and hemostasis, 845 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in and around 34 genes associated with thrombosis and hemostasis and included in the commercial Axiom Precision Medicine Research Array (PMRA) were evaluated, using gene frequencies in 3 African (Somali and Luhya in East Africa, and Yoruba in West Africa) and 14 non-African (admixed American, East Asian, European, South Asian, and sub-groups) populations. Among the populations studied, Europeans were observed to be the best represented population by the hemostatic SNPs included in the PMRA. The European population also presented the largest number of common pharmacogenetic and pathogenic hemostatic variants reported in the ClinVar database. The number of such variants decreased the farther the genetic distance a population was from Europeans, with Yoruba and East Asians presenting the least number of clinically significant hemostatic SNPs in ClinVar while also being the two genetically most distinct populations from Europeans among the populations compared. Current study shows the lopsided representation of global populations as regards to hemostatic genetic variants listed in different commercial SNP arrays, such as the PMRA, and reported in genetic databases while also underlining the importance of inclusion of non-European ethnolinguistic populations in genomics studies designed to discover variants of significance to bleeding and thrombotic disorders.Funding Agencies|Linkoping University</p

Prevalence of common hereditary risk factors for thrombophilia in Somalia and identification of a novel Gln544Arg mutation in coagulation factor V

Thrombophilia, commonly manifested as venous thromboembolism (VTE), is a worldwide concern but little is known on its genetic epidemiology in many parts of the globe particularly in the developing countries. Here we employed TaqMan genotyping and pyrosequencing to evaluate the prevalence of known common nucleotide polymorphisms associated with thrombophilia in a Somali population in the Puntland region of Somalia. We also employed next generation sequencing (NGS) to investigate other genetic variants in a Somali patient with deep venous thrombosis (DVT). As expected, we found no existence of factor V Leiden (rs6025) and prothrombin G20210A (rs1799963) in the Somali population. The G allele of ABO [261G/delG] polymorphism (rs8176719) was found at a frequency of 29%, similar to that observed in other African populations. We found the lowest so far reported frequency of MTHFR C677T (rs1801133) polymorphism in the Somali population (T allele frequency 1.5%). A novel and deleterious single nucleotide variation in exon 11 of coagulation factor V (c.1631A amp;gt; G) causing Gln544Arg exchange in factor V was identified in a 29 years old Somali female with DVT. The same patient was heterozygous to VKORC1 Asp36Tyr polymorphism (rs61742245) that predisposes to warfarin resistance. In conclusion, this study shows that common hereditary factors for thromboembolism found in Caucasians are either less frequent or absent in the Somali population-similar to the situation in other Africans. NGS is possibly a better choice to detect genetic risk variants for thrombosis in this ethnic group.Funding Agencies|County Council of Ostergotland, Sweden</p

Linköping University Medical Dissertations

Studies on warfarin treatment with emphasis on inter-individual variations and drug monitorin

Peculiarities of studying the effects of pathogen reduction technologies on platelets

The transfusion of platelet concentrates (PCs) is mainly used for treatment of thrombocytopenic, trauma or surgery patients. The integrity and safety of these platelet preparations, however, is compromised by the presence of pathogens, such as viruses, bacteria and parasites. The transfer of allogeneic donor leukocytes contaminating PCs can also potentially cause adverse reactions in recipients. These considerations prompted the development and implementation of pathogen reduction technologies (PRT), which are based on chemically induced cross‐linking and inactivation of nucleic acids. While the incumbent PRT may provide some protection against transfusion‐transmitted infections, they are ineffective against infectious prions and may not inactivate other emerging pathogens. In addition, the safety of PRT concerning platelet viability and function has been questioned in several reports. Recent studies suggest that PRT, such as Intercept, may adversely affect the messenger RNA (mRNA) and microRNA content of platelets, as well as their functional integrity, which may compromise the clinical benefits of PRT. Here, we will discuss about the peculiarities of studying the effects of PRT on platelets, which will need to be taken into account in future studies aimed to characterize further, and polish, the rugged side of this otherwise useful and potentially important approach in transfusion medicine

The platelets’ perspective to pathogen reduction technologies

A wide variety of clinical conditions, associated with low circulating platelet counts, require platelet transfusion in order to normalize hemostatic function. Although single-donor apheresis platelets bear the lowest risk of transfusion-transmitted infections, pathogen reduction technologies (PRT) are being implemented worldwide to reduce this risk further through inactivation of known, emergent and as yet to be discovered nucleic acid-based pathogens. Human blood platelets are now known to harbor a diverse transcriptome, important to their function and comprised of >5000 protein-coding messenger RNAs and different classes of non-coding RNAs, including microRNAs. Our appreciation of the nucleic acid-dependent functions of platelets is likely to increase. On the other hand, the side effects of PRT on platelet function are underappreciated. Recent evidences suggest that PRT may compromise platelets’ responsiveness to agonists, and induce platelet activation. For instance, platelets have the propensity to release proinflammatory microparticles (MPs) upon activation, and the possibility that PRT may enhance the production of platelet MPs in platelet concentrates (PCs) appears likely. With this in mind, it would be timely and appropriate to investigate other means to inactivate pathogens more specifically, or to modify the currently available PRT so to better preserve the platelet function and improve the safety of PCs; platelets’ perspective to PRT deserves to be considered

Frequency of PAR4 Ala120Thr variant associated with platelet reactivity significantly varies across sub-Saharan African populations

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Next Generation Sequencing Analysis of Human Platelet PolyA plus mRNAs and rRNA-Depleted Total RNA

Background: Platelets are small anucleate cells circulating in the blood vessels where they play a key role in hemostasis and thrombosis. Here, we compared platelet RNA-Seq results obtained from polyA+ mRNA and rRNA-depleted total RNA. Materials and Methods: We used purified, CD45 depleted, human blood platelets collected by apheresis from three male and one female healthy blood donors. The Illumina HiSeq 2000 platform was employed to sequence cDNA converted either from oligo(dT) isolated polyA+ RNA or from rRNA-depleted total RNA. The reads were aligned to the GRCh37 reference assembly with the TopHat/Cufflinks alignment package using Ensembl annotations. A de novo assembly of the platelet transcriptome using the Trinity software package and RSEM was also performed. The bioinformatic tools HTSeq and DESeq from Bioconductor were employed for further statistical analyses of read counts. Results: Consistent with previous findings our data suggests that mitochondrially expressed genes comprise a substantial fraction of the platelet transcriptome. We also identified high transcript levels for protein coding genes related to the cytoskeleton function, chemokine signaling, cell adhesion, aggregation, as well as receptor interaction between cells. Certain transcripts were particularly abundant in platelets compared with other cell and tissue types represented by RNA-Seq data from the Illumina Human Body Map 2.0 project. Irrespective of the different library preparation and sequencing protocols, there was good agreement between samples from the 4 individuals. Eighteen differentially expressed genes were identified in the two sexes at 10% false discovery rate using DESeq. Conclusion: The present data suggests that platelets may have a unique transcriptome profile characterized by a relative over-expression of mitochondrially encoded genes and also of genomic transcripts related to the cytoskeleton function, chemokine signaling and surface components compared with other cell and tissue types. The in vivo functional significance of the non-mitochondrial transcripts remains to be shown