Defining the need for surgical intervention following a snakebite still relies heavily on clinical assessment: The experience in Pietermaritzburg, South Africa

Background. This audit of snakebites was undertaken to document our experience with snakebite in the western part of KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) Province, South Africa (SA).Objective. To document our experience with snakebite in the western part of KZN, and to interrogate the data on patients who required some form of surgical intervention.Methods. A retrospective study was undertaken at the Pietermaritzburg Metropolitan Trauma Service, Pietermaritzburg, SA. The Hybrid Electronic Medical Registry was reviewed for the 5-year period January 2012 - December 2016. All patients admitted to the service for management of snakebite were included.Results. The offending snake is rarely identified, and the syndromic approach is now the mainstay of management. Most envenomations seen during the study period were cytotoxic, presenting with painful progressive swelling (PPS). We did not see any purely neurotoxic or haemotoxic envenomations. Antivenom is required for a subset of patients. The indications are essentially PPS that increases by >15 cm over an hour, PPS up to the elbow or knee after 4 hours, PPS of the whole limb after 8 hours, threatened airway, shortness of breath, associated clotting abnormalities and compartment syndrome. If no symptoms have manifested within 1 hour of a snakebite, clinically significant envenomation is unlikely to have occurred. Antivenom is associated with a high rate of anaphylaxis and should only be administered when absolutely indicated, preferably in a high-care setting under continuous monitoring. The need for surgery is less well defined. Urgent surgery is indicated for compartment syndrome of the limb, which is a potentially life- and limb-threatening condition. Its diagnosis is usually made clinically, but this is difficult in snakebites. Morbidity and cost increase dramatically once fasciotomy is required, as evidenced by much longer hospital stay. There is frequently a degree of cross-over between cytotoxicity and haemotoxicity in envenomations that require fasciotomy, which means that fasciotomy may result in catastrophic bleeding and should be preceded by the administration of antivenom, especially in patients with a low platelet count or a high international normalised ratio. Physiological and biochemical markers are unhelpful in assessing the need for fasciotomy. Objective methods include measurement of compartment pressures and ultrasound.Conclusion. The syndromic management of snakebite is effective and safe. There is a high incidence of anaphylactic reactions to antivenom, and its administration must be closely supervised. In our area we overwhelmingly see cytotoxic snakebites with PPS. Surgery is often needed, and we need to refine our algorithms in terms of deciding on surgery

A raised serum lactate level is an independent predictor of in-hospital mortality in patients with isolated cerebral gunshot wounds

Background. Cerebral gunshot wounds (CGSWs) represent a highly lethal form of traumatic brain injury, and triaging these patients is difficult. The prognostic significance of the serum lactate level in the setting of CGSWs is largely unknown.Objectives. To examine the relationship between elevated serum lactate levels and mortality in patients with isolated CGSWs.Methods. A retrospective review of the regional trauma registry was undertaken at the Pietermaritzburg Metropolitan Trauma Service, South Africa, over a 5-year period from 1 January 2010 to 31 December 2014. All patients with an isolated CGSW were included.Results. A total of 102 patients with isolated CGSWs were identified. Of these, 92.2% (94/102) were male. The mean age (standard deviation) was 29 (8) years, and the in-hospital mortality rate was 21.6% (22/102). The mean serum lactate level was significantly higher among non-survivors than among survivors (6.1 mmol/L v. 1.3 mmol/L; p<0.001). Lactate levels among non-survivors were <2 mmol/L in 4.5%, 2 - 3.99 mmol/L in 9.1%, 4 - 5.99 mmol/L in 36.4% and ≥6 mmol/L in 50.0%. The odds ratio for mortality with a lactate level of 4 - 5.99 mmol/L was 67 (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.7 - 2 674.2), while for a lactate level of ≥6 mmol/L it was 1 787 (95% CI 9.0 - 354 116.1). The serum lactate level accurately predicted mortality even after adjustment for other variables. Based on a receiver operating curve analysis, an optimal cut-off of 3.3 mmol/L for serum lactate as a predictor for mortality was identified (area under the curve = 0.957).Conclusions. CGSWs are associated with significant mortality, and a raised serum lactate level appears to be an independent predictor of in-hospital mortality. It is a potentially useful adjunct in the resuscitation room for identifying patients with a very poor prognosis