Accumulation of heavy metals in the organs of wild rodents

The aim of the present study was to observe the effects of long-term exposure of environmental pollutants during human life. For this purpose, we measured the basal levels of heavy metals in the tissue of the organs of wild rodents. Wild rodents were caught in six localities within Higashi-osaka city in the suburbs of Osaka, Japan, and the Cr, Cd and Pb content in the organs of the rodents were compared. In addition, isotope ratios of Pb were measured. No detectable Hg was measured by ICP-MS in the liver, kidney, lung, and brain of the wild rodents. When the metal contents of the organs were compared, the contents of Cr, Cd, and Pb in the kidney were higher than in the liver and brain. The lung Cr content was similar to the kidney; however, no Pb content was detected in the lungs in any rodents. Also, lung Cd content was lower than in the kidney. When metal content in the rodent organs was compared with the collection locality, only Cd content in the brain was observed as different. Next, when the 207/206 ratio of Pb was compared with the organs and collection locality, the ratios were different between the brain and kidney, and between the brain and liver. The ratio of Pb in the brain was a significant difference between No1 and No4 localities. In conclusion, metals may be absorbed into organs by different absorption routes. The spread of heavy metal environmental pollution is well reflected in the organs of wild rodents living in the suburbs of Osaka, Japan

Guidelines for the use and interpretation of assays for monitoring autophagy (4th edition)

In 2008, we published the first set of guidelines for standardizing research in autophagy. Since then, this topic has received increasing attention, and many scientists have entered the field. Our knowledge base and relevant new technologies have also been expanding. Thus, it is important to formulate on a regular basis updated guidelines for monitoring autophagy in different organisms. Despite numerous reviews, there continues to be confusion regarding acceptable methods to evaluate autophagy, especially in multicellular eukaryotes. Here, we present a set of guidelines for investigators to select and interpret methods to examine autophagy and related processes, and for reviewers to provide realistic and reasonable critiques of reports that are focused on these processes. These guidelines are not meant to be a dogmatic set of rules, because the appropriateness of any assay largely depends on the question being asked and the system being used. Moreover, no individual assay is perfect for every situation, calling for the use of multiple techniques to properly monitor autophagy in each experimental setting. Finally, several core components of the autophagy machinery have been implicated in distinct autophagic processes (canonical and noncanonical autophagy), implying that genetic approaches to block autophagy should rely on targeting two or more autophagy-related genes that ideally participate in distinct steps of the pathway. Along similar lines, because multiple proteins involved in autophagy also regulate other cellular pathways including apoptosis, not all of them can be used as a specific marker for bona fide autophagic responses. Here, we critically discuss current methods of assessing autophagy and the information they can, or cannot, provide. Our ultimate goal is to encourage intellectual and technical innovation in the field