Evaluation of fish handling techniques employed by artisanal fishers on quality of Lethrinids and Siganids fish genera at landing time along the Kenyan coast using sensory and microbiological methods

In artisanal fishery, traditional handling methods such as tossing fish onto the boat bottom or into woven mat baskets and gunny bags after capture are commonly employed. These practices accelerate fish spoilage due to cross contamination and exposure to high ambient temperature. This study aimed at investigating the effect of non-icing (onboard handling methods) on the quality of Lethrinids (Emperor fish, local name: Changu) and Siganids (Rabbitfish, local name: Tafi) landed along the Kenyan coast in comparison to iced fish. Monthly, samples were assessed by sensory methods using Quality Index Method (QIM), Total Viable Counts (TVC) and hydrogen sulphide (H2S) producing bacteria considered as specific spoilage organisms (SSO) counts for raw fish; Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA) and Torry score for cooked fillets. Iced fish was characterised by better freshness quality attributes at landing time compared to non-iced at both landing sites. According to the QIM, iced treatment recorded better quality scores that were significantly different from non-iced groups (p<0.05) throughout the study with regard to fish genera. Cooked fillets showed both treatments to be within human consumption limits although non-iced fish were characterised by marginal quality attributes. Microbial assessment depicted TVC to be on average 102- 103 CFU/g and 103- 104 CFU/g in iced and non-iced Lethrinids respectively at both sampling sites. In Siganids higher numbers of 104- 105 CFU/g were recorded in non–iced group, with H2S producing bacteria constituting a higher proportion of TVC. Iced Siganids recorded 102- 103 CFU/g throughout the study. Fish quality was reported to be inconsistent over the sampled month which reflects the large pressure systems of the Western Indian Ocean and the two distinct monsoon periods considered to differ in warmth. The major cause of deteriorated fish quality observed at landing time in the fishery was attributed to bacterial proliferation accelerated most importantly by non-icing onboard handling practises reported such as tossing fish onto the boat bottom or into woven mat baskets and gunny bags employed by the fishers. Sensory evaluation of cooked fillets and microbiological analysis showed fish was acceptable for human consumption regardless of handling method employed. This assures consumers of acceptable fish quality at landing time as long as good hygienic practices are observed at subsequent stages to consumption.Key words: Lethrinids, Siganids, Quality, Sensory, Handlin

The International Law of Secession and the Protection of the Human Rights of Oppressed Sub-State Groups: Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow

This paper focuses on significant patterns/features in the historical development of the international law of secession and its contribution over time (or the lack thereof) to the struggle to afford greater protection to oppressed sub-state groups the world over. It was Crawford Young who once observed that “the state as an analytical quarry is an elusive and complex prey.” With the necessary modifications, this observation applies with almost equal force to the international law of secession. Complexity and confusion loom too large in this area of international law. For example, there is, at best, little clarity in the literature of the discipline of international law and in related fields of study regarding the existence or otherwise of an international legal entitlement to secession in favor of even the most highly oppressed and subjugated sub-state groups

Human metapneumovirus epidemiological and evolutionary patterns in Coastal Kenya, 2007-11

Background: Human metapneumovirus (HMPV) is an important global cause of severe acute respiratory infections in young children and the elderly. The epidemiology of HMPV in sub-Saharan Africa is poorly described and factors that allow its recurrent epidemics in communities not understood. Methods: We undertook paediatric inpatient surveillance for HMPV in Kilifi County Hospital (KCH) of Coastal Kenya between 2007 and 2011. Nasopharyngeal samples collected from children aged 1 day–59 months admitted with severe or very severe pneumonia, were tested for HMPV using real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Partial nucleotide sequences of the attachment (G) and fusion (F) surface proteins of positive samples were determined and phylogenetically analyzed. Results: HMPV was detected in 4.8 % (160/3320) of children [73.8 % (118/160) of these less than one year of age], ranging between 2.9 and 8.8 % each year over the 5 years of study. HMPV infections were seasonal in occurrence, with cases predominant in the months of November through April. These months frequently coincided with low rainfall, high temperature and low relative humidity in the location. Phylogenetic analysis of partial F and G sequences revealed three subgroups of HMPV, A2 (74 %, 91/123), B1 (3.2 %, 4/123) and B2 (22.8 %, 28/123) in circulation, with subgroup A2 predominant in majority of the epidemic seasons. Comparison of G sequences (local and global) provided a greater phylogenetic resolution over comparison of F sequences and indicated presence of probable multiple G antigenic variants within the subgroups due to differences in amino acid sequence, encoded protein length and glycosylation patterns. Conclusion: The present study reveals HMPV is an important seasonal contributor to respiratory disease hospitalization in coastal Kenya, with an evolutionary pattern closely relating to that of respiratory syncytial virus