A comparison of the bacterial contamination of the surface of cleanroom operators’ garments following donning with and without gloves.

Background: Specialist cleanroom garments are a potential vector for transmission of microorganisms within these facilities. In order to maintain the low bioburden of such clothing it has been perceived best practice for operators to dress wearing sterile cleanroom gloves. However, the efficacy of such glove use upon the resultant bacterial contamination of the surface of cleanroom garments has not previously been evaluated. Aim: To compare surface bacterial contamination of cleanroom garments following their donning by operators dressing with or without gloves. Methods: Following prior handwashing and systematic donning of cleanroom clothing by operators dressing wearing either no gloves, non-sterile nitrile gloves or sterile cleanroom latex gloves, a direct agar contact method was immediately undertaken to test garment surfaces at 7 specific sites. Following incubation bacterial levels were suitably quantified. Findings: Comparing levels of growth displayed on plates used to test the surface of cleanroom garments worn by operators dressing with no gloves, non–sterile gloves or sterile cleanroom gloves, no significant difference was observed between the percentage of contact plates displaying growth and the levels of growth observed on plates, from any of the sites tested. Conclusion: Omission of gloves in line with a systematic handwashing procedure prior to the cleanroom garment donning process, may result in modest economic and environmental gain coupled with a slightly less burdensome procedure. However, this is reliant on rigorous adherence to handwashing protocol and assessment of associated risk factors

Veterinary pharmacy within the United Kingdom: review of current practice and education.

Background: Pharmacists have acknowledged roles as medicines experts facilitating human healthcare. Such expertise is also applicable in pharmaceutical treatments for non-human animals. Aims: The aims were to review the perceptions and extent to which pharmacists in the United Kingdom (UK) participate with veterinary pharmacy, and to consider their educational background in this area. Methods: Using an iterative approach, extensive searches of relevant databases and key pharmacy publications were conducted with all relevant material published between 2002 – 2012 gathered. Results: Limited information on the subject has been published, highlighting the lack of widespread consideration. It was established that UK registered pharmacists have minimal participation in veterinary medicine. The major reason for limited participation is an insufficient knowledge of the subject. Conclusion: Delivery of the revised GPhC indicative syllabus in Schools of Pharmacy should provide pharmacy graduates of the future with enhanced knowledge of veterinary pharmacy thereby facilitating greater participation with this area

Evaluation of the practice of veterinary pharmacy.

Background: In the United Kingdom (UK), pharmacists' roles have expanded considerably in recent decades to encompass clinical practice through more direct patient care. However, dispensing and compounding remain core activities for pharmacists. A lack of marketed preparations for species specific animal use results in veterinary pharmacy practice compounding, retaining its prominence. Current participation by pharmacists to support this sphere of practice would appear to be minimal. Objectives: This study was undertaken to determine the opinions and views toward the practice of veterinary pharmacy by a cross-sectional group of pharmacists. Methods: Research data were collected via a self-administered survey questionnaire, distributed at the 2012 annual conference of the Royal Pharmaceutical Society. Sampling was purposive, with random distribution of the questionnaire to pharmacists during the conference sessions. Key findings: Interaction by pharmacists with veterinary pharmacy is currently minimal primarily due to lack of knowledge of veterinary medicines. Respondents revealed a lack of veterinary pharmacy courses during their undergraduate studies. This has led to situations where some veterinary prescriptions are dispensed without adequate checks being performed by the pharmacist. Pharmacists on occasion do not dispense veterinary prescriptions presented to them, due to insufficient knowledge of veterinary medicines and/or a lack of consultable reference sources. The effect on practice is that pharmacists do not always participate as fully as would seem logical. Conclusions: Pharmacists' participation in veterinary pharmacy is limited by a lack of knowledge of veterinary medicines, mostly resulting from inadequate tuition on veterinary pharmacy during their initial education

Morphological and ultrastructural changes in bacterial cells as an indicator of antibacterial mechanism of action.

Efforts to reduce the global burden of bacterial disease and contend with escalating bacterial resistance are spurring innovation in antibacterial drug and biocide development and related technologies such as photodynamic therapy and photochemical disinfection. Elucidation of the mechanism of action of these new agents and processes can greatly facilitate their development, but it is a complex endeavour. One strategy that has been popular for many years, and which is garnering increasing interest due to recent technological advances in microscopy and a deeper understanding of the molecular events involved, is the examination of treated bacteria for changes to their morphology and ultrastructure. In this review, we take a critical look at this approach. Variables affecting antibacterial-induced alterations are discussed first. These include characteristics of the test organism (e.g. cell wall structure) and incubation conditions (e.g. growth medium osmolarity). The main body of the review then describes the different alterations that can occur. Micrographs depicting these alterations are presented, together with information on agents that induce the change, and the sequence of molecular events that lead to the change. We close by highlighting those morphological and ultrastructural changes which are consistently induced by agents sharing the same mechanism (e.g. spheroplast formation by peptidoglycan synthesis inhibitors) and explaining how changes that are induced by multiple antibacterial classes (e.g. filamentation by DNA synthesis inhibitors, FtsZ disruptors, and other types of agent) can still yield useful mechanistic information. Lastly, recommendations are made regarding future study design and execution

Colistin causes profound morphological alteration but minimal cytoplasmic membrane perforation in populations of Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Whilst colistin (polymyxin E) represents the last mainstream treatment option for multi-drug resistant Gram-negative pathogens, details of its mechanism of action remain to be fully resolved. In this study, the effects of sub-inhibitory, inhibitory-bactericidal, and supra-bactericidal levels of colistin on the membrane integrity and morphology of Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were investigated using potassium loss, flow cytometry, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Supra-bactericidal colistin concentrations induced just 4-12% intracellular potassium loss from bacteria after 24 h. Flow cytometry data suggested colistin might alter cell arrangement, and SEM confirmed the antibiotic causes bacterial aggregation. Filamentation was not detected in either species at any concentration or time-point up to 24 h. These results argue against the hypotheses that colistin kills bacteria by puncturing the cytoplasmic membrane or disrupting DNA synthesis. The colistin-induced bacterial aggregation detected has implications for the interpretation of MBC, time-kill, and other test results obtained with this antibiotic

Veterinary pharmacy: coverage in the undergraduate pharmacy curriculum and perspectives of practising pharmacists.

The scope of tuition delivered in a School of Pharmacy in the UK on the topic of veterinary pharmacy appears to be centred on legislation and medicine supply under the veterinary cascade. This study sought the opinions of pharmacy undergraduate students, practising community and hospital pharmacists on veterinary pharmacy in the current undergraduate curriculum and their views on increasing coverage of this topic. Data were collected through use of survey questionnaires, focus groups and direct face-to-face structured interviews with 115 pharmacy students, 40 community pharmacists and 20 hospital pharmacists. Findings from this study confirmed that veterinary pharmacy coverage is minimal in the current undergraduate pharmacy curriculum. About 70% of student respondents confirmed that greater inclusion of veterinary pharmacy in the curriculum is perceived to be beneficial for future employment. Community pharmacists revealed that their lack of knowledge of veterinary medicines affected their participation in veterinary pharmacy. Though hospital pharmacists were not exposed to, and rarely had any participation in veterinary pharmacy, they were largely of the opinion that all pharmacists should possess knowledge of veterinary medicines. The main conclusion is that the current level of tuition on veterinary pharmacy is insufficient and this identified deficiency needs to be addressed