Viktige faktorar for å etablera eit varig avlsprogram for mjølkegeit i Tanzania

The overall objective of this thesis was to develop building blocks essential for establishing a sustainable dairy goat breeding program in Tanzania. To fulfil this objective, three approaches were employed. This included field survey (paper I &II), simulation study (paper III) and on-farm experiment and lesson learnt (paper IV). The production systems optimization in paper I showed that dairy goat production brings assurance of less variation in production income in the long term compared to other production systems. However, to achieve this in Tanzania it is necessary to purchase more concentrate feed and implement goat breeding principles. Paper II found that of the 125 respondents, many (35.2%) keep dairy goats for milk production, as many as 30.6% to obtain offspring and sell them, and 24.1% of the respondents emphasized the value of manure. In the study areas, manure was sold to obtain income. High producing goats (33.7%), tolerance to diseases (20%), and high twinning ability (14%) were the most preferred traits by respondents. In addition, the farmers lack knowledge on selection, recording, and animal identification. Paper III found that testing between 20 and 30 bucks per year could lead to a good breeding program with acceptable level of accuracy under local conditions in Tanzania. Testing 30 bucks per year is recommended for Mgeta. Part of paper III also outlines elements necessary for breeding program sustainability. A schematic figure is included to illustrate how selection can be performed through progeny testing to fit current situation in Mgeta. The SWOT analysis in paper IV reveals that Tanzania has a potential for dairy goat development. Strengths are: good policy, presence of research and academic institutions, readiness of private sectors to participate in the dairy goat industry, availability of resources, and that many rural famers already own dairy goats. Weaknesses are: insufficient support from the government, low formal education of farmers, lack of clear breeding goals, and lack of sustainability of breeding selection programs established. These pull back progress in the dairy goat sector. However, there are several opportunities such that information towards solving the limitations are available. In Europe, for example, they seem to do better with animal breeding programs. Quality genetic materials from these successful programs can be accessed by other countries like Tanzania through markets, given that the policy allows. On these grounds in paper IV, occasional import of dairy goat semen for AI to use in a nucleus breeding herd is proposed. Both bucks and female offspring born in such a herd may be supplied to farmers. Quality dairy goats is already a business in Tanzania, hence participation of private sectors in the industry should be encouraged. The government and academic institutions may be watchdogs of what should be happening regarding dairy goats in the country. Threats may include change in policy regarding export/import of buck semen, farmers’ willingness to pay for price of quality bucks, and how quick the market for surplus milk is growing, and participation of milk processors and marketing of derived products. This thesis proposes possibilities of establishing dairy goat breeding program under small scale farms in Tanzania given that better on-farm recording systems including pedigree information is developed. Setting clear breeding goals with a few traits, e.g. milk yield and survival in this case, is recommended. Because of the various practical options and accessibility to new knowledge, it is necessary to revise breeding schemes from time to time. Lastly, this thesis raises the question; ”How many dairy goat breeds are needed in Tanzania?”. This can be a future TALIRI job.Det overordna målet for denne avhandlinga var å utvikla byggjesteinar som er essensielle for å etablera eit bærekraftig avlsprogram for mjølkegeit i Tanzania. For å nå dette målet, blei tre angrepsmåtar brukt: feltstudiar (artikkel I & II), simuleringsstudie (artikkel III) og utprøving i felt og kunnskapsinnsamling (artikkel IV). I arbeidet med å optimalisera produksjonssystemet (artikkel I) viste eg at mjølkeproduksjon fører til mindre variasjon i produksjonsinntekt på lang sikt enn andre produksjonssystem. Men for å oppnå dette i Tanzania bør ein kjøpa meir kraftfôr og nytta moderne avlsprinsipp. I artikkel II fann eg at av dei 125 respondentane, ville mange (35,2%) ha ei geit med høg mjølkeproduksjon. Så mange som 30,6% vil ha fleire avkom per geit (mange tvillingar), og 24,1% av respondentane understreka nytten av gjødsel frå geitene. I dei områda der respondentane blei intervjua blei gjødsel selt og utgjorde ei inntekt frå geitehaldet. Eigenskapar som ein ønskjer å endra var høgare mjølkeproduksjon (33,7%), sjukdomstoleranse (20%), og høgare tvillingfrekvens (14%). I tillegg mangla bøndene kunnskap om utval av avlsdyr, husdyrkontroll og individmerking. I artikkel III fann eg at testing av mellom 20 og 30 bukkar per år kan gje eit godt avlsprogram med akseptabel sikkerheit for å rekna ut avlsverdar. For Mgeta anbefaler vi testing av 30 bukkar per år. I artikkel III skisserte eg òg faktorar som er nødvendige for å få etablert eit varig avlsprogram. Eit skjema som illustrerer korleis eit avlsprogram med avkomsgransking av testbukkar i Mgeta kan gjennomførast er òg tatt med. SWOTanalysen i artikkel IV viser eg at Tanzania har potensiale for å utvikla mjølkeproduksjon på geit vidare. Styrkar i landet er ein god politikk, at det finst forskings- og akademiske institusjonar, at privat sektor er villig til å delta i sektoren, at fôrresursar finst, og at mange bønder alt eig mjølkegeiter. Svakhetar er at det ikkje er nok støtte frå regjeringa, bøndene har lite skulegang, mangel på klare avlsmål, og at avlstiltak ikkje varer. Dette bremsar framgangen i sektoren. Men løysingar på slike problem finst. I Europa, for eksempel, synest dei å lykkast med avlsprogram for husdyr. Genetisk kvalitetsmateriale frå desse vellykka programma kan andre land som Tanzania få del i ved kjøp, gitt at ein får løyve til det. Difor foreslår eg i artikkel IV sporadisk import av sæd for å bruka det i ein elitebuskap for mjølkegeit i Tanzania. Både bukkar og geitekje fødde i ein slik flokk kan seljast til bønder. Mjølkegeiter blir alt nå omsette i Tanzania og slike initiativ i privat sektor bør oppmuntrast. Offentleg sektor kan passa på kva som bør skje med mjølkegeiter i landet. Truslar kan vera endringar i politikken når det gjeld import av genetisk materiale, bønders vilje til å betala for verdifulle avlsdyr, kor raskt mjølkeomsetninga aukar og utvikling av meieri og omsetning av mjølkeprodukt. I denne avhandlinga foreslår eg mulege måtar å få til eit avlsprogram for mjølkegeit gjennom eit samarbeid mellom små mjølkeprodusentar i Tanzania. For å lukkast med dette må mjølkekontroll og individinformasjon innhentast på slike gardar. Klare avlsmål med få eigenskapar, for eksempel mjølkemengde og overleving, blir anbefalt. På grunn av kva som er praktisk mulig og tilgjengeleg kunnskap til ei kvar tid, er det nødvendig å revidere avlsprogram frå tid til anna. Til slutt reiser eg i avhandlinga spørsmålet: «Kor mange mjølkegeitrasar trengst i Tanzania?. Å svara på dette, kan vera ein jobb for forskarane som arbeider ved TALIRI.“Enhancing Pro-poor Innovation in Natural Resources and Agricultural Value Chains (EPINAV)” program supported by the Government of Norway at Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) (grant No.1.1/06

Climate Change Adaptation in Vulnerable Crop and Livestock Production Systems in Mgeta, Tanzania

Awareness regarding effects of climate change on the environment and livelihoods is becoming more apparent than at any time before (Elisha, 2006). Among the farming systems that have attracted the attention in Tanzania, are those in Mgeta in thehigh altitude water catchment area in the Uluguru Mountains. Land degradation have been widely reported in Mgeta (Ponte, 2001), and is currently threatening the source of water for domestic use and livelihoods of the local communities. Increased occurrence of droughts and dry spells during the growing seasons might reinforce the problem. A robust cropping system toreplace the erosion vulnerable vegetables seems needed if agriculture is to persist in the area. Farmers in Mgeta grow vegetables in pure stand and in intercropping systems on bench terraces and in steep slopes, especially tomatoes, potatoes, cabbage, beans, green peas and maize. Besides, traditional goats (free roaming) and pigs are kept for meat and manure for the vegetables. In 1988, Norwegian dairy goats were introduced and currently farmers upgrade the local goats by crossing with dairy bucks. The dairy goats are tethered or kept indoors to avoid land degradation due to overgrazing. Expanding goat milk production might be advantageous since a market for milk, or milk products such as yoghurt, can be found both locally and in the neighboring towns. In this paper a traditional cropping-livestock system with meat goats and pigs and extensive vegetable production is compared with dairy goats and more use of multi-purpose trees (MPTs) and grass and less vegetables

Typology and characteristics of indigenous goats and production systems in different agro-ecological zones of Tanzania

Tanzania has a goat population of about 24.8 million most of which belong to the Small East African breed distributed in almost all agro-ecological zones. The different goat populations and the production system in which they are raised are not well characterized depriving animal breeders useful information in designing and running improvement and conservation programs. Therefore, the study was conducted in all agro-ecological zones in Tanzania to characterize the indigenous goats and the production system in which they are raised. Data on animals were collected from 688 randomly selected adult female goats and for production system description; 220 households were interviewed. Analysis of variance and discriminant analysis were used on quantitative data, while frequency analysis was used on qualitative data. Income generation and meat production were the primary goat rearing objectives. More than 55% of respondents grazed their animals freely in communal lands where natural pasture was the chief feed resource. Mating was mainly uncontrolled with apron and castration being used by goat keepers as mating control methods. Common diseases were contagious caprine pleural pneumonia and helminthiasis. Feed shortage, prevalence of diseases, and water scarcity were the major goat production constraints. There were morphological variations between and within these goat populations, and based on quantitative data, the goats were categorized into two groups. High twinning was observed in Ujiji and Lindi goats and low for Sukuma. The dominant coat color was plain white in Pare, Gogo, Maasai, and Tanga. Other coat color patterns were mixed black and white for Sukuma, reddish-brown for Lindi, black and reddish-brown for Ujiji, and white and reddish-brown for Pwani and Maasai. High within population variation is observed which is important as it can be used as a basis for genetic improvement through selection

Heat Stress Effects on Physiological and Milk Yield Traits of Lactating Holstein Friesian Crossbreds Reared in Tanga Region, Tanzania

Global warming caused by climate change is a challenge for dairy farming, especially in sub-Saharan countries. Under high temperatures and relative humidity, lactating dairy cows suffer from heat stress. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects and relationship of heat stress (HS) measured by the temperature–humidity index (THI) regarding the physiological parameters and milk yield and composition of lactating Holstein Friesian crossbred dairy cows reared in the humid coastal region of Tanzania. A total of 29 lactating Holstein Friesian x Zebu crossbred dairy cows with 50% (HF50) and 75% (HF75) Holstein Friesian gene levels in the second and third months of lactation were used. The breed composition of Holstein Friesians was determined based on the animal recording system used at the Tanzania Livestock Research Institute (TALIRI), Tanga. The data collected included the daily temperature, relative humidity, daily milk yield, and physiological parameters (core body temperature, rectal temperature, respiratory rate, and panting score). THI was calculated using the equation of the National Research Council. The THI values were categorized into three classes, i.e., low THI (76–78), moderate THI (79–81), and high THI (82–84). The effects of THI on the physiological parameters and milk yield and composition were assessed. The effects of the genotype, the parity, the lactation month, and the interaction of these parameters with THI on the milk yield, milk composition, and physiological parameters were also investigated. The results show that THI and its interaction with genotypes, parity, and the lactation month had a highly significant effect on all parameters. THI influenced (p ˂ 0.05) the average daily milk yield and milk fat %, protein %, lactose %, and solids–not–fat %. As the THI increased from moderate to high levels, the average daily milk yield declined from 3.49 ± 0.04 to 3.43 ± 0.05 L/day, while the fat % increased from 2.66 ± 0.05% to 3.04 ± 0.06% and the protein decreased from 3.15 ± 0.02% to 3.13 ± 0.03%. No decline in lactose % was observed, while the solid–not–fat % declined from 8.56 ± 0.08% to 8.55 ± 0.10% as the THI values increased from moderate to high. Also, the THI influenced physiological parameters (p ˂ 0.05). The core body temperature (CBT), rectal temperature (RT), respiratory rate (RR) and panting score (PS) increased from 35.60 ± 0.01 to 36.00 ± 0.01 °C, 38.03 ± 0.02 to 38.30 ± 0.02 °C, 62.53 ± 0.29 to 72.35 ± 0.28 breaths/min, and 1.35 ± 0.01 to 1.47 ± 0.09, respectively, as the THI increased from low to high. The THI showed a weak positive correlation with the average daily milk yield and fat percentage, whereas the protein, lactose, and solids–not–fat percentages showed negative relationships with THI (p ≤ 0.05). CBT, RT, RR, and PS showed positive relationships (p ≤ 0.05) with THI. These negative relationships indicate that there is an antagonistic correlation between sensitivity to HS and the level of production. It is concluded that the THI, the genotype, the parity, and the lactation month, along with their interactions with THI, significantly influenced the milk yield, milk composition, and physiological parameters of lactating Holstein Friesian dairy crosses at THI thresholds ranging from 77 to 84.</p

Heat Stress Effects on Physiological and Milk Yield Traits of Lactating Holstein Friesian Crossbreds Reared in Tanga Region, Tanzania

Global warming caused by climate change is a challenge for dairy farming, especially in sub-Saharan countries. Under high temperatures and relative humidity, lactating dairy cows suffer from heat stress. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects and relationship of heat stress (HS) measured by the temperature–humidity index (THI) regarding the physiological parameters and milk yield and composition of lactating Holstein Friesian crossbred dairy cows reared in the humid coastal region of Tanzania. A total of 29 lactating Holstein Friesian x Zebu crossbred dairy cows with 50% (HF50) and 75% (HF75) Holstein Friesian gene levels in the second and third months of lactation were used. The breed composition of Holstein Friesians was determined based on the animal recording system used at the Tanzania Livestock Research Institute (TALIRI), Tanga. The data collected included the daily temperature, relative humidity, daily milk yield, and physiological parameters (core body temperature, rectal temperature, respiratory rate, and panting score). THI was calculated using the equation of the National Research Council. The THI values were categorized into three classes, i.e., low THI (76–78), moderate THI (79–81), and high THI (82–84). The effects of THI on the physiological parameters and milk yield and composition were assessed. The effects of the genotype, the parity, the lactation month, and the interaction of these parameters with THI on the milk yield, milk composition, and physiological parameters were also investigated. The results show that THI and its interaction with genotypes, parity, and the lactation month had a highly significant effect on all parameters. THI influenced (p ˂ 0.05) the average daily milk yield and milk fat %, protein %, lactose %, and solids–not–fat %. As the THI increased from moderate to high levels, the average daily milk yield declined from 3.49 ± 0.04 to 3.43 ± 0.05 L/day, while the fat % increased from 2.66 ± 0.05% to 3.04 ± 0.06% and the protein decreased from 3.15 ± 0.02% to 3.13 ± 0.03%. No decline in lactose % was observed, while the solid–not–fat % declined from 8.56 ± 0.08% to 8.55 ± 0.10% as the THI values increased from moderate to high. Also, the THI influenced physiological parameters (p ˂ 0.05). The core body temperature (CBT), rectal temperature (RT), respiratory rate (RR) and panting score (PS) increased from 35.60 ± 0.01 to 36.00 ± 0.01 °C, 38.03 ± 0.02 to 38.30 ± 0.02 °C, 62.53 ± 0.29 to 72.35 ± 0.28 breaths/min, and 1.35 ± 0.01 to 1.47 ± 0.09, respectively, as the THI increased from low to high. The THI showed a weak positive correlation with the average daily milk yield and fat percentage, whereas the protein, lactose, and solids–not–fat percentages showed negative relationships with THI (p ≤ 0.05). CBT, RT, RR, and PS showed positive relationships (p ≤ 0.05) with THI. These negative relationships indicate that there is an antagonistic correlation between sensitivity to HS and the level of production. It is concluded that the THI, the genotype, the parity, and the lactation month, along with their interactions with THI, significantly influenced the milk yield, milk composition, and physiological parameters of lactating Holstein Friesian dairy crosses at THI thresholds ranging from 77 to 84.</p

Genes and models for estimating genetic parameters for heat tolerance in dairy cattle

Dairy cattle are highly susceptible to heat stress. Heat stress causes a decline in milk yield, reduced dry matter intake, reduced fertility rates, and alteration of physiological traits (e.g., respiration rate, rectal temperature, heart rates, pulse rates, panting score, sweating rates, and drooling score) and other biomarkers (oxidative heat stress biomarkers and stress response genes). Considering the significant effect of global warming on dairy cattle farming, coupled with the aim to reduce income losses of dairy cattle farmers and improve production under hot environment, there is a need to develop heat tolerant dairy cattle that can grow, reproduce and produce milk reasonably under the changing global climate and increasing temperature. The identification of heat tolerant dairy cattle is an alternative strategy for breeding thermotolerant dairy cattle for changing climatic conditions. This review synthesizes information pertaining to quantitative genetic models that have been applied to estimate genetic parameters for heat tolerance and relationship between measures of heat tolerance and production and reproductive performance traits in dairy cattle. Moreover, the review identified the genes that have been shown to influence heat tolerance in dairy cattle and evaluated the possibility of using them in genomic selection programmes. Combining genomics information with environmental, physiological, and production parameters information is a crucial strategy to understand the mechanisms of heat tolerance while breeding heat tolerant dairy cattle adapted to future climatic conditions. Thus, selection for thermotolerant dairy cattle is feasible

Assessing milk products quality, safety, and influencing factors along the dairy value chain in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo

Dairying is one of the new promising economic sectors in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), but still not explored enough to ensure consumers' safety. This study aimed to assess the health risks and nutritional profile of milk products along the value chain in South-Kivu and Tanganyika provinces. A total of 288 milk actors, including 160 producers, 35 collectors and 93 vendors, were concerned for interview and milk samples collection. A total of 302 milk samples (159 raw, 44 pasteurized, 76 fermented and 19 white cheese so-called “Mashanza”) were collected for physicochemical [pH, fat, non-fat dry matter (NFDM), lactose, protein, freezing point, density] and microbiological (total Aerobic Mesophilic Flora, Escherichia coli, Total Coliforms, Fecal Coliforms, Salmonella and Staphylococci) analyses. Results revealed that the physicochemical characteristics of the milk mostly varied according to the type of milk and the regions. The pasteurized milk from Tanganyika presented the best physicochemical parameters [crude protein (CP) = 4.36%, Fat = 4.06%, NFDM = 12%, lactose = 5.4%, density = 1.02 and pH = 6.59] compared to other types of milk. For microbiology, no E. coli was recorded but Salmonella and Staphylococci were found in all the milk types with the values not exceeding 3 × 104 CFU ml−1 and 3 × 103 CFU ml−1, respectively. This implies a long-term consumers' health issue if appropriate measures are not taken by milk actors along the value chain. The microbiological quality was influenced by the ecologies of production axis (representing the production zones) and by handling methods and infrastructures used by the actors involved along the value chain. Factors related to animal husbandry, milking method, milk processing and packaging had no significant effect on the physicochemical parameters under study. These results indicated that health risks for milk consumers are accrued by production practices and handling by milk actors due to shortage of required skills and appropriate equipment along the milk value chain. Observance of hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) measures is carefully required along the milk value chain nodes to improve the quality of milk produced and sold and thus reduce the risks among consumers in South-Kivu and Tanganyika provinces

Use of simulation to examine a dairy goat breeding program in Tanzania

This paper discusses selection in a dairy goat population for improved performance by conceptualizing it for a population in Tanzania. Seven strategies (5, 10, 20, 30, 50, 70, 100 test bucks) were simulated. A progeny test based selection breeding program fitting Mgeta (Morogoro, Tanzania) situation was optimized. The selection intensity, accuracy of prediction, and genetic gain of milk yield (kg) per day at heritability 0.1 and 0.2 are discussed. Use of natural mating for 1000 goats, in cooperating villages, were assumed. Three elite bucks were selected for breeding with 12% of the best females. Outlines of essential elements for a local sustainable dairy goat breeding program in Tanzania are included with a schematic figure showing selection steps for dairy goat breeding scheme fitting in Mgeta area. This study found that selection intensity gained when testing many bucks is more important for daily milk yield (DMY) (kg) genetic gain than the extra accuracy gained when testing fewer bucks. Mgeta has a mountainous terrain, small herd sizes per farmer and long distance from one cooperating village to another. Testing 30 bucks is practical for Mgeta. That gives relatively high (42% or 53%) accuracy of selection and genetic gain (2% or 2.6% for 0.1 or 0.2 heritability). The current results of estimated genetic gain are close to reported findings under other environments. Based on dairy goats of Norwegian breed in Tanzania, milked once daily, if 210 days of milking and an average of 1 litre milk yield is considered, the possible genetic gain per year in this program is equivalent to an increase of 4.2kg for 0.1 heritability and 5.5kg of milk per doe for 0.2 heritability of the trait. Such an increase in amount of milk due to a breeding program under the considered environment is promising. Collaborative efforts from farmers to consumers along the dairy goat market chain remain important elements to realize a sustainable high gain. The proposed breeding program may not be perfect in future because of practical options and accessibility to new knowledge. Thus, it becomes indispensable to revise breeding programs.publishedVersio

Climate change adaptation in vulnerable crop and livestock production systems in Mgeta, Tanzania

-Increased occurrence of drought and dry spells during the growing season have resulted in increased interest in protection of tropical water catchment areas. In Mgeta, a water catchment area in the Uluguru Mountains in Tanzania, water used for vegetable and fruit production is provided through canals from the Uluguru South Forest Reserve. The clearing of forest land for cultivation in the steep slopes in the area is causing severe land degradation, which is threatening the water catchment area, livelihoods, and food security of the local communities, as well as the major population centers in the lowlands. In this paper, the economic performance of a traditional cropping-livestock system with East African (EA)-goats and pigs and extensive vegetable production is compared with a more sustainable and environmentally friendly crop-dairy goat production system. A linear programming (LP) crop-livestock model, maximizing farm income considering the environmental constraints in the area was applied for studying the economic performance of dairy goats in the production system. The model was worked out for the rainy and dry seasons and the analysis was conducted for a basic scenario representing the current situation, based on the variability in the 30 years period from 1982-2012, and in a scenario of both lower crop yields and increased crop variability due to climate change. Data obtained from a sample of 60 farmers that were interviewed using a questionnaire was used to develop and parameterize the model. The study found that in the steep slopes of the area, a crop-dairy goat system with extensive use of grass and multipurpose trees (MPTs) would do better than the traditional vegetable gardening with the EA goat production system. The crop-dairy goat system was superior both in the basic and in a climate change scenario since the yield variation of the grass and MPTs system was less affected compared to vegetable crops due to more tree cover and the use of perennial grasses. However, the goat milk production in the area was constrained by inadequate feeding and lack of an appropriate breeding program. Hence, farmers should enhance goat milk production by supplementing with more concentrate feed and by implementing goat-breeding principles. Moreover, policy measures to promote such a development are briefly discussed