Performance of African Agricultural Exports and External Market Access Conditions under International Trade Reforms

Sub Saharan African agriculture is currently facing challenges in international trade with respect to external market access conditions and competition in world markets as a result of trade liberalization efforts under the world trade organization (WTO) agreements and in particular the agreement on agriculture (AoA). This paper presents the performance of agricultural exports for selected countries and indicates external market barriers faced and the resulting implications of the barriers on WTO Doha Development Agenda (DDA) negotiations. The composition of agricultural exports and markets shows that exports from Sub Saharan Africa are less diversified with only five commodities mainly coffee, cocoa, cotton, hides and skins, and horticultural crops dominating in most countries. Markets are also concentrated on only a few countries with the European Union being a major market although intra Africa trade has increased in recent years because of regional integration efforts. Important external market access barriers faced are tariff peaks and escalation particularly for agro-processed and livestock products in developed countries and non tariff barriers particularly sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) and technical barriers to trade (TBTs) measures, safeguard and anti-dumping measures, and domestic and export subsidies on agricultural products for developed countries. The performance of agricultural exports from Sub Saharan Africa based on production and value for the period 1990 to 2000 shows mixed trends across countries and commodities. In general, there has been an increase in production and exports of non-traditional commodities but exports of traditional exports for some countries show an increasing trend while for others they have stagnated or even declined due to declining world market prices and domestic marketing problems. In conclusion, the future of increased exports from Sub Saharan Africa countries lies in value adding for traditional commodities and diversification to non-traditional products such as flowers, fruits and, fish and fish products. Thus, tariff escalation and peaks for agro-processed products and NBTs such as SPS and TBT are important issues to be focused on during multilateral trade negotiations, as they are major barriers to increasing exports from Sub Saharan Africa. Domestic and export subsidies in developed countries are also of concern because they reduce the competitiveness of products from Sub Saharan Africa by depressing world market prices besides making it difficult for these countries to diversify their agriculture.International Relations/Trade,

Economic evaluation of alternative livestock disease control methods in Kenya

Economic analysis is an important prerequisite in the development of new technologies before they are transferred to farmers for adoption. In Africa, new technologies are being developed for the control of East Coast Fever (ECF). However, economic analysis for the ECF control methods have been limited to economic estimates using budgeting techniques that do not adequately account for production and price risks associated with the technology. ECF is a cattle disease caused by the protozoan parasite Theileria parva and transmitted by ticks. ECF is conventionally controlled by controlling ticks using acaricides and by treating the sick animals. A new technology involving immunizing cattle against the disease has been developed, tested and found to be feasible under research conditions. However, controlling ECF disease alone using the new technology may not be adequate because the presence of ticks also causes stress on cattle and can transmit other diseases. This study focused on the evaluation and prediction of farm-level financial and economic impacts of using alternative ECF control methods. A whole farm simulation model, the Technology Impact Evaluation Simulator (TIES), was used to evaluate five alternative ECF control methods. The model included all the production and disposal activities on the farm as well as off-farm activities. Production and price risks were estimated within the model using multivariate probability distributions for yields and prices. The study used both primary and secondary data. A total of 12 farms in Uasin Gishu District and Kaloleni Division in Kenya were analyzed. The TIES model was used to simulate annual production, marketing, financial management, and family consumption activities of representative farms over a 10-year planning horizon. The key output variables from the simulation model were net present value, net worth, benefit cost ratio, internal rate of return, and average annual cash and net farm income. The simulated output results from the alternative ECF control methods were used to analyze the financial and economic performance of farms, the probability of survival, and the probability of economic success of the farms. The alternative ECF control methods on farms were also evaluated using the stochastic dominance criterion to determine the most preferred alternative by farmers and to estimate the associated confidence premiums. The results from the analysis indicated that the improved alternative ECF control methods were financially and economically superior than the currently practiced methods on all farms. The most preferred alternative ECF control method was the adoption of the new technology, immunization or the Infection and Treatment Method with a 75-percent reduction in acaricide use. The highest financial and economic benefits were realized with exotic cattle breeds and crosses between the exotic breeds and the indigenous Zebu cattle (Grade cattle). The most preferred ECF control method was stable over a wide range of cattle mortality rates, immunization and acaricide cost levels. However, the method was sensitive to changes in cattle productivity, particularly milk production. The results demonstrated that whole farm simulation, based on a model such as TIES, offers a flexible method for economic analysis of new technologies on farms. Risks associated with stochastic yields and prices are easily incorporated in the model using probability distributions. With stochastic simulation, probabilities associated with net present value, internal rate of return, benefit cost ratio and other key output variables are generated that can be used to select among alternative technologies. The generated probabilities indicate the chance that the new technology or investment will attain the required selection criteria as opposed to the traditional selection criteria which rely on absolute values only. Thus, with this particular model, the economic survival and success of farms from the use of alternative technologies can be assessed. The probability distributions for the output variables also allow for the alternative technologies to be ranked using the stochastic dominance criteria and to estimate the confidence premiums or convictions associated with the most preferred technology or investment alternative. The calculated confidence premiums indicate the shadow prices that might be attached to alternative technologies or practices

Range use and dynamics in the agropastoral system of southeastern Kenya

Occurrence of equilibrium and non equilibrium system dynamics in semiarid environments present serious management challenges. In these areas, resource management strategies are increasingly based on equilibrium rather than non equilibrium dynamics that assume simple system dynamics and strong coupling of animal-plant responses. This management approach underlies increasing trends of range degradation and low livestock productivity in these environments. To reverse these trends dictates greater understanding and alignment of grazing resource extraction strategies in space and time to prevailing system dynamics behaviour. In this study, range use patterns by free ranging herds under agropastoral herding were studied in two cycles of four consecutive grazing periods, in semiarid southeastern Kenya. The bites count and herd locations per area methods were used. While grazing thresholds in the system were derived from biweekly sward biomass measured by the quadrant technique in the growing period and stocking rates applied to a growth-consumption rate model. The analysis tested the responsiveness of the agropastoral herding strategies to the predominant system dynamics in the area. In this environment, high rainfall variability ranging from 71 to 98% is experienced across years and seasons, pointing to non-equilibrium dynamics in the system. The agropastoralists practiced seasonal range use and tracking strategies. During the dry season, areas of concentrated drainage; river valleys, bottomlands and ephemeral drainage ways absorbed a greater grazing load, taking 57.1 to 60% of the grazing time by the animals. In contrast, areas of limited moisture concentration, the open sandy/clay plains, were mainly exploited in the wet season and accounted for 52.6 to 55.6% of the grazing time. The agropastoralists tracked forage availability through use of multispecies livestock (cattle, goats and sheep) that exploited different grazing resources in space and time. These range use patterns and strategies tend to stabilize nutrient and energy flow to livestock and thus productivity throughout the seasons. Based on the growth-consumption rate model, grazing thresholds in the system are achieved at 13800, 13000, 4000 and 12300, 4600 and 12000, and 5600 and 11000 kgha-1 of grass biomass at, 2.5, 5, 7, 8 and 10 TLUha-1, respectively. 7 TLUha-1 represent the upper stocking rate limit in the system during the growing period. In this system, resource use strategies are in line with the predominantly non-equilibrium system behaviour. However, sedentary land use interventions and limiting farm sizes that restrict livestock mobility and negatively affect grazing resource diversity will undermine system stability and sustainable livestock production in the area.Key words: Agropastoralists, range use, system dynamics

Hydrologic properties of grazed perennial swards in semiarid southeastern Kenya

Identification of plant resources that persist under grazing pressure, support desirable levels of production and at the same time protect the grazing environment is central to sustainable livestock production. This study assessed the infiltration capacity and soil loss associated with perennial swards subjected to different levels of utilization using simulated rainfall. The hypothesis was tested that grazed perennial swards have similar hydrologic properties and threshold removal levels below which runoff increases markedly. Infiltration capacity for the perennial swards increased with increasing stubble height before leveling off towards the highest stubble height. A 50% removal of current growth was the upper limit above which runoffs from the swards increased rapidly. Aggregate stability, organic carbon and percent ground plant cover were the most significant attributes that influenced infiltration capacity. Panicum maximum and Enteropogon macrostachyus were the most suitable perennial swards with favourable soil physical properties and infiltration capacities in the study area. The results support the existence of a threshold level of sward stubble height for minimizing runoff.Key words: Perennial swards, water infiltration capacity, runoff thresholds

The perfect drought? Constraints limiting Kalahari agro-pastoral communities from coping and adapting

Rural Kalahari agro-pastoral communities of Southern Africa have been exposed to drought shocks throughout history and have adapted their livelihoods accordingly. Yet, drought continues to disrupt or threaten to disrupt their production systems. With semi arid Botswana as a case study, this paper hence sought to unearth the factors limiting agro-pastoral communities from adequately coping and adapting to drought. Low rainfall, which is also highly variable, coupled with relatively low soil fertility status make subsistence livestock keeping and crop cultivation risky. This marginal agricultural potential of the land is further compounded by other constraints. Some of the major constraints included persistence of droughts, limited diversification options outside agriculture, inadequate and poor quality drinking water (high salinity) for livestock, crop damage by wild animals as well as the current land tenure system which curtails the traditional response of livestock mobility during drought. All these factors may act solely or in combination to render rural communities vulnerable during droughts. It is therefore recommended that effective interventions be tailored to local conditions to enhance resilience among Kalahari’s rural population.Key words: Adaptation, Botswana, coping, drought, variability, vulnerability

Effect of biotic and abiotic factors on composition and foraging intensity of subterranean termites

Elucidating the influence of ecological factors on composition and foraging intensity of subterranean termites is critical in development of sustainable termite management strategies. Our aim was therefore to analyze the effect of selected biotic and abiotic factors on composition and foraging intensity of termites. We used principal component and canonical correspondence analysis to select appropriate factors and to model relationships respectively. Macrotermes species occurred in sites where the quantity of litter was generally above the mean. However, Macrotermes herus (Rambur) and Macrotermes spp.4 occurred in sites where the litter quantity was below the mean. Trinervitermes oeconomous (Tragardh) and Odontoremes spp.1 were noted to occur in the direction of increasing quantity of biomass. Generally, most species occurred in sites where soil pH was above or slightly below the mean (4.8). Majority of the species were also noted to occur in sites where bulk density was below or slightly above the mean (1.55 g/cm3). Highest bait consumption (95%) occurred within a range of 55 to 60% basal cover beyond which the amount of bait consumed reduced. Litter and biomass quantity, pH and bulk density were noted as the most influential environmental variables determining composition of termites while basal cover was the major determinant of foraging intensity.Key words: Rangelands, Macrotermes, rangelands, vegetation, litter, biomass, basal-cover

Assessing development strategies and Africa's food and nutrition security

"On average, a typical developing country in Africa is assisted by about 30 aid institutions in the implementation of development strategies, yet Africa is still far from achieving food and nutrition security. Adequate access to food that is necessary for food security must be complemented with provision of health services, education, sanitary environments, and safe water sources, among other resources, to achieve nutrition security." from TextDevelopment assistance ,Food security Africa ,Nutrition Security ,Health services ,Water quality ,Sanitation ,Development strategies ,

Development strategies and food and nutrition security in Africa: an assessment

"Momentum is building in and around Africa today for policy action to decisively confront hunger and malnutrition. If we are to succeed, it is vital that food and nutrition security strategies be both sound and able to be implemented. Ultimately, strategies deficient in either of these two areas will be ineffectual. Lessons from past strategies provide a valuable resource in the design of future strategies, yet there is a dearth of programmatic information and rigorous evaluations of the approaches used in the past. With this in mind, the authors of this 2020 discussion paper review the multitude of approaches and strategies for achieving food and nutrition security in Africa within the context of development over the past four decades. They assess the extent to which these plans have been implemented and identify the key constraints and limitations, along with the priority investments needed for more effective design and implementation in the future." Foreword by Joachim von Braun, Director General, IFPRIFood policy, Hunger, Malnutrition Africa, Food security Africa, Development policies, Assessment, Investments,

Drought Adaptation and Coping Strategies Among the Turkana Pastoralists of Northern Kenya

This study highlights drought characteristics and the many responses to drought stresses employed by Turkana pastoralists of northwestern Kenya. Multiple data sources, including socioeconomic interviews with 302 households, focus group discussions, and informal interviews with pastoralists were used to capture various aspects of drought and drought adaptation and coping practices. Standardized precipitation index derived from long-term rainfall data obtained from the Kenya Meteorological Service was used to quantify different degrees of drought intensity between 1950 and 2012. Results revealed that extreme drought events were increasingly frequent, and have impacted negatively on pastoral livelihoods. In order to adapt to or cope with climatic anomalies, households are using a variety of strategies. In addition to the traditional short-term coping mechanisms, the long-term adaptation strategies used include diversification of livelihood sources; livestock mobility to track forage and water resources; diversification of herd composition to benefit from the varied drought and disease tolerance, as well as fecundity of diverse livestock species; and sending children to school for formal education as a long term investment expected to pay back through income from employment. Policies and development interventions that reduce risks, diminish livelihood constraints, and expand opportunities for increased household resilience to drought are critical complements to the existing pastoral strategies

Climate variability; enhancing adaptive utilization of browse trees for improved livestock production among agro-pastoralists communities in Southern Zambia

Agro-pastoralists whose sources of livelihood depend on rain-fed agriculture are very vulnerable to ecological disturbance due to increasing climate variability. They are unable to adequately feed their animals in times of extreme weather conditions of floods and droughts thereby causing a disruption in their major source of livelihood. This study analyzed the feeding strategies employed by agro- pastoralists in Southern Zambia and important browse species used in extreme weather conditions, in order to improve their utilization for improved livestock production. The major feeding strategies during droughts include browse utilization, dambo grazing, grazing along streams and supplementary feeding. While during floods, upland grazing and browse grazing were the main strategies. However, most of the agro-pastoralists do not practice pasture management and fodder conservation for their animals. Of the 21 tree browse species identified by the agro-pastoralists, 18 species were found to be important during droughts and 8 during floods. Most of the agro-pastoralists neither knew how to plant these browse species nor how to manage them for better and sustainable use in feeding their animals. Therefore, the agro-pastoralists in the study area need to take up management and feed conservation measures for their animals. Deliberate effort should be made to teach the agro-pastoralists how to plant and manage the important browse species that are suitable in extreme weather conditions. This will enhance productive use of the browse species for improved animal feeding to ensure food security among the pastoralists.Key words: Extreme weather conditions, adaption, browse species, Agro-pastoralists