Short term survival of premature infants admitted to the new born unit at Moi Teaching and Referral Hospital, Kenya

Background: Short and long term survival rates of premature infants have been well documented in developed countries. However, there are few data in low resource settings describing the survival of preterm infants. Data on short term survival rates of preterm infants may inform clinicians in a resource limited setting when counseling families on expected outcomes of care.Objective: To determine survival to hospital discharge of preterm infants in a public tertiary hospital in Kenya.Design: Prospective hospital cohort study design was used.Setting: Moi Teaching and Referral Hospital New Born Unit, Kenya.Participants: Premature Infants and their mothersInterventions: No study specific interventions were performed. We prospectively evaluated survival from admission until discharge from the hospital of 175 premature infants admitted to the newborn unit at Moi Teaching and Referral Hospital, a tertiary public hospital, between December 2012 and August 2013. We determined the overall survival rate and gestational age and birth weight category survival rates.Main outcome measures and Analysis: Death or discharge was the main outcomes of interest. Cox Proportional Hazards model was used to determine factors associated with survival and Kaplan-Meier survival curves drawn.Results: Of the 175 infants, 53.1% were female, mean birth weight was 1342g (± 355.5) and 37% were born before arrival. There were 15.4% neonates born less than 28 weeks, 30.9% aged 28- 31 weeks and 53.7% above 32-37 weeks. The overall survival to hospital discharge was 60.6% (95% CI 0.53-0.68). The survival rate was 29.6% for infants born less than 28 weeks’ gestation, 50% for those born at 28-31 weeks and 75.5% for those born at or above 32 weeks. Gestation age of ≥ 32 weeks (HR 0.39, 95% CI 0.18-0.8), birth weight >1000g (HR 0.27, 95% CI 0.20-0.78) and maternal antenatal care attendance (HR 0.52, 95% CI 0.3-0.9) were associated with better survival. Caesarian section delivery was associated with increased risk of death (HR 4.26, 95% CI 1.88-9.66). Most of deaths (81%) occurred within the first seven days.Conclusions: Sixty percent of premature infants admitted to MTRH new born unit survived to hospital discharge. The survival limit defined as the gestation at which a prematurely born infant has a 50% chance of survival was at the gestational age category of 28-32 weeks

Pediatric assent for a study of antiretroviral therapy dosing for children in western Kenya: a case study in international research collaboration

Multinational collaborators in health research face particular ethical challenges when conducting studies involving vulnerable populations such as children. We use an example from our first attempt to implement pediatric assent in the context of a longstanding research and clinical partnership between Kenyan and American medical schools to highlight the ethical and procedural issues related to pediatric assent that must be considered for multinational, pediatric studies. We consider relevant domestic, professional, and international guidelines for assent in pediatric research subjects, and we discuss the particular ethical challenges related to pediatric assent in the Kenyan context. Finally, we propose a way forward for approaching pediatric assent within our collaborative research program in Kenya that may apply to other multinational research partnerships.Fogarty International Center at the National Institutes of Health [R25TW006070]; USAID-AMPATH Partnership, United States Agency for International Developmen

Adapting health behavior measurement tools for cross-cultural use

Background: Addressing health disparities in the global community requires awareness of how cultural differences in beliefs, traditions, norms, and values shape health problems and behaviors. Review: This paper reviews methods of assessing health behaviors, how these assessments may be affected by cross-cultural differences, and methods of adaptation of health behaviors across cultures. We describe the methods used in appropriate translation processes and pilot-testing for health behavior assessment tools. We also discuss ways to limit literacy demands and incorporate qualitative interviews

The Vulnerabilities of Orphaned Children Participating in Research: A Critical Review and Factors for Consideration for Participation in Biomedical and Behavioral Research

Orphans are a subpopulation with a unique set of additional vulnerabilities. Increasing focus on children’s rights, pediatric global health, and pediatric research makes it imperative to recognize and address unique vulnerabilities of orphaned children. This paper describes the unique vulnerabilities of the orphaned pediatric population and offers a structured set of factors that require consideration when including orphans in biomedical research. Pediatric orphans are particularly vulnerable due to decreased economic resources, psychosocial instability, increased risk of abuse, and delayed/decreased access to healthcare. These vulnerabilities are significant. By carefully considering each issue in a population in a culturally specific and study-specific manner, researchers can make valuable contributions to the overall health and well-being of this uniquely vulnerable population

Characteristics of HIV-infected adolescents enrolled in a disclosure intervention trial in western Kenya

Knowledge of one's own HIV status is essential for long-term disease management, but there are few data on how disclosure of HIV status to infected children and adolescents in sub-Saharan Africa is associated with clinical and psychosocial health outcomes. We conducted a detailed baseline assessment of the disclosure status, medication adherence, HIV stigma, depression, emotional and behavioral difficulties, and quality of life among a cohort of Kenyan children enrolled in an intervention study to promote disclosure of HIV status. Among 285 caregiver-child dyads enrolled in the study, children's mean age was 12.3 years. Caregivers were more likely to report that the child knew his/her diagnosis (41%) compared to self-reported disclosure by children (31%). Caregivers of disclosed children reported significantly more positive views about disclosure compared to caregivers of non-disclosed children, who expressed fears of disclosure related to the child being too young to understand (75%), potential psychological trauma for the child (64%), and stigma and discrimination if the child told others (56%). Overall, the vast majority of children scored within normal ranges on screenings for behavioral and emotional difficulties, depression, and quality of life, and did not differ by whether or not the child knew his/her HIV status. A number of factors were associated with a child's knowledge of his/her HIV diagnosis in multivariate regression, including older age (OR 1.8, 95% CI 1.5-2.1), better WHO disease stage (OR 2.5, 95% CI 1.4-4.4), and fewer reported caregiver-level adherence barriers (OR 1.9, 95% CI 1.1-3.4). While a minority of children in this cohort knew their HIV status and caregivers reported significant barriers to disclosure including fears about negative emotional impacts, we found that disclosure was not associated with worse psychosocial outcomes

Pharmacokinetics-based adherence measures for antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected Kenyan children

BACKGROUND: Traditional medication adherence measures do not account for the pharmacokinetic (PK) properties of the drugs, potentially misrepresenting true therapeutic exposure. METHODS: In a population of HIV-infected Kenyan children on antiretroviral therapy including nevirapine (NVP), we used a one-compartment model with previously established PK parameters and Medication Event Monitoring Systems (MEMS®)-recorded dosing times to estimate the mean plasma concentration of NVP (Cp) in individual patients during 1 month of follow-up. Intended NVP concentration (Cp') was calculated under a perfectly followed dosing regimen and frequency. The ratio between the two (R = Cp/Cp') characterized the patient's NVP exposure as compared to intended level. Smaller R values indicated poorer adherence. We validated R by evaluating its association with MEMS®-defined adherence, CD4%, and spot-check NVP plasma concentrations assessed at 1 month. RESULTS: In data from 152 children (82 female), children were mean age 7.7 years (range 1.5-14.9) and on NVP an average of 2.2 years. Mean MEMS® adherence was 79%. The mean value of R was 1.11 (SD 0.37). R was positively associated with MEMS® adherence (p < 0.0001), and lower-than-median R values were significantly associated with lower NVP drug concentrations (p = 0.0018) and lower CD4% (p = 0.0178), confirming a smaller R value showed poorer adherence. CONCLUSION: The proposed adherence measures, R, captured patient drug-taking behaviours and PK properties

Computer-generated reminders and quality of pediatric HIV care in a resource-limited setting

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the impact of clinician-targeted computer-generated reminders on compliance with HIV care guidelines in a resource-limited setting. METHODS: We conducted this randomized, controlled trial in an HIV referral clinic in Kenya caring for HIV-infected and HIV-exposed children (<14 years of age). For children randomly assigned to the intervention group, printed patient summaries containing computer-generated patient-specific reminders for overdue care recommendations were provided to the clinician at the time of the child's clinic visit. For children in the control group, clinicians received the summaries, but no computer-generated reminders. We compared differences between the intervention and control groups in completion of overdue tasks, including HIV testing, laboratory monitoring, initiating antiretroviral therapy, and making referrals. RESULTS: During the 5-month study period, 1611 patients (49% female, 70% HIV-infected) were eligible to receive at least 1 computer-generated reminder (ie, had an overdue clinical task). We observed a fourfold increase in the completion of overdue clinical tasks when reminders were availed to providers over the course of the study (68% intervention vs 18% control, P < .001). Orders also occurred earlier for the intervention group (77 days, SD 2.4 days) compared with the control group (104 days, SD 1.2 days) (P < .001). Response rates to reminders varied significantly by type of reminder and between clinicians. CONCLUSIONS: Clinician-targeted, computer-generated clinical reminders are associated with a significant increase in completion of overdue clinical tasks for HIV-infected and exposed children in a resource-limited setting

The Perceived Impact of Disclosure of Pediatric HIV Status on Pediatric Antiretroviral Therapy Adherence, Child Well-Being, and Social Relationships in a Resource-Limited Setting

This is a copy of an article published in AIDS Patient Care and STDs © 2010 [copyright Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.]; [AIDS Patient Care and STDs] is available online at: http://online.liebertpub.com.In resource-limited settings, beliefs about disclosing a child’s HIV status and the subsequent impacts of disclosure have not been well studied. We sought to describe how parents and guardians of HIV-infected children view the impact of disclosing a child’s HIV status, particularly for children’s antiretroviral therapy (ART) adherence. A qualitative study was conducted using involving focus groups and interviews with parents and guardians of HIV-infected children receiving ART in western Kenya. Interviews covered multiple aspects of the experience of having children take medicines. Transcribed interview dialogues were coded for analysis. Data were collected from 120 parents and guardians caring for children 0–14 years (mean 6.8 years, standard deviation [SD] 6.4); 118 of 120 had not told the children they had HIV. Children’s caregivers (parents and guardians) described their views on disclosure to children and to others, including how this information-sharing impacted pediatric ART adherence, children’s well-being, and their social relationships. Caregivers believed that disclosure might have benefits such as improved ART adherence, especially for older children, and better engagement of a helping social network. They also feared, however, that disclosure might have both negative psychological effects for children and negative social effects for their families, including discrimination. In western Kenya, caregivers’ views on the risks and benefits to disclosing children’s HIV status emerged a key theme related to a family’s experience with HIV medications, even for families who had not disclosed the child’s status. Assessing caregivers’ views of disclosure is important to understanding and monitoring pediatric ART

Acceptance of HIV Testing for Children Ages 18 Months to 13 Years Identified Through Voluntary, Home-Based HIV Counseling and Testing in Western Kenya

Background Home-based, voluntary counseling and testing (HCT) presents a novel approach to early diagnosis. We sought to describe uptake of pediatric HIV testing, associated factors, and HIV prevalence among children offered HCT in Kenya. Methods The USAID-AMPATH Partnership conducted HCT in western Kenya in 2008. Children 18 months to 13 years were offered HCT if their mother was known to be dead, her living status was unknown, mother was HIV-infected or of unknown HIV status. This retrospective analysis describes the cohort of children encountered and tested. Results HCT was offered to 2,289 children and accepted for 1,294 (57%). Children were more likely to be tested if more information was available about a suspected or confirmed maternal HIV-infection (for HIV-infected, living mothers OR=3.20, 95% CI: 1.64–6.23), if parents were not in household (OR=1.50, 95% CI: 1.40–1.63), if they were grandchildren of head of household (OR=4.02, 95% CI: 3.06–5.28), or if their father was not in household (OR=1.41, 95% CI: 1.24–1.56). Of the eligible children tested, 60 (4.6%) were HIV-infected. Conclusions HCT provides an opportunity to identify HIV among high-risk children; however, acceptance of HCT for children was limited. Further investigation is needed to identify and overcome barriers to testing uptake

A systematic review of measures of HIV/AIDS stigma in paediatric HIV-infected and HIV-affected populations

Introduction: HIV-related stigma impacts the quality of life and care management of HIV-infected and HIV-affected individuals, but how we measure stigma and its impact on children and adolescents has less often been described. Methods: We conducted a systematic review of studies that measured HIV-related stigma with a quantitative tool in paediatric HIV-infected and HIV-affected populations. Results and discussion: Varying measures have been used to assess stigma in paediatric populations, with most studies utilizing the full or variant form of the HIV Stigma Scale that has been validated in adult populations and utilized with paediatric populations in Africa, Asia and the United States. Other common measures included the Perceived Public Stigma Against Children Affected by HIV, primarily utilized and validated in China. Few studies implored item validation techniques with the population of interest, although scales were used in a different cultural context from the origin of the scale. Conclusions: Many stigma measures have been used to assess HIV stigma in paediatric populations, globally, but few have implored methods for cultural adaptation and content validity