17 research outputs found

    Floristic Diversity and Conservation Value of Tanoe-Ehy Forest in South-Eastern (Cote d’Ivoire)

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    The Tanoe-Ehy Forest, located in the South-Eastern of the Côte d’Ivoire is one of the rare forest cover of this type that still exists in the Country. These Forest was identified as a top priority site for conservation in West Africa. However, this important forest is subject to strong anthropogenic pressures which through poaching, uncontrolled takeoffs of natural resources and some agricultural clearing. A Botanical study based on plots, itinerant and linear inventory conducted in this forest intends to assess the plant species diversity and the conservation value for biodiversity of this forest. At the end of the study, 432 plant species were recorded. Among them, 14 are listed on endemic of Upper Guinea and 16 threatened and endangered list of species. Concerning the species threatened and endangering, 3 species are really in endangering (Hemandradenia chevalieri, Tieghemella heckelii, Irvingia gabonensis) and 13 others are a category of vulnerable species. A Sassandrian species of type II (Piptostigma fugax) was also observed. The dominant species of the forest are Symphonia globulifera and Uapaca paludosa. Concerning the vegetation condition, the swamp forest, the dry land forest and the raphiale vegetation have a high conservation value

    Analyse de la Diversité Floristique de Quelques îles Aménagées du Barrage de Buyo (Côte d’Ivoire)

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    This paper focuses on analyzing the floristic composition of islands of Buyo’s dam after strong anthropization. Using surfaces surveys, linear surveys and itinerant surveys, the floristic composition and diversity were determined. Seven hundred and twenty-three plants species belonging to 353 genera and 99 families were recorded. The ecological importance of the species has been assessed from the Value of Significance. The study showed that for tree species with diameter ≥ 10 cm, the species Alchornea cordifolia, Ceiba pentandra, Theobroma cacao, and Lannea welwitschii were the richest and had the highest Indices of Value Importance. The mean richness of species showed a significant difference (p≤ 0. 03797) among the Islands of Buyo’s dam. Island D which is close to the Park with the presence of animals isrich in species(101 ± 10 74). Apolinaire and Laminebougou Islands farthest to the Park with strong agricultural activity are poor in species (51 ± 11. 14; 50 ± 6. 29). Floristic diversity and evenness do not vary statistically from one site to another.La présente étude se propose d’analyser la composition et la diversité floristique des îles du barrage de Buyo après forte anthropisation. À l’aide de relevé de surface, de relevé linéaire et de relevé itinérant, la composition et la diversité floristique de onze îles ont été déterminées. L’inventaire a permis de noter 723 espèces de plantes reparties entre 353 genres et 99 familles. L’importance écologique des espèces a été appréciée à partir de l’Indice de Valeur d’Importance. L’étude a montré que pour les arbres de diamètre ≥ 10 cm, les espèces Alchornea cordifolia, Ceiba pentandra, Theobroma cacao, Lannea welwitschii sont celles qui ont les plus forts indices de valeur d’importance des espèces. La moyenne de la richesse spécifique montre une différence significative (p≤ 0,03797) entre les différentes îles du barrage de Buyo. L’île D, proche de la forêt du Parc, avec une présence moyenne de mammifères, est la plus riche en espèces (101 ± 10, 74). Les îles Apollinaire et Laminebougou, plus éloignées de la forêt mère et avec une intense activité, sont les plus pauvres en espèces (51 ± 11,14 ; 50 ± 6, 29). La diversité floristique et l’équitabilité ne varient pas statistiquement entre les îles

    Diversité floristique, Croissance et Qualité du Bois de Cedrela odorata L. (Meliaceae) et Gmelina arborea Roxb (Verbenaceae) dans Différents Systèmes de Reboisement de la Forêt Classée de la Besso (Sud-Est Côte d’Ivoire)

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    La couverture forestière de la CĂ´te d’Ivoire estimĂ©e Ă  environ 16 millions d’hectares dans les annĂ©es 1900 a connu une importante rĂ©duction. En effet, elle est estimĂ©e aujourd’hui Ă  moins de 3 millions d’hectares. Cette rĂ©duction est l’effet conjuguĂ© de l’urbanisation galopante, de l’agriculture et de l’exploitation des massifs forestiers en bois d’œuvre. Cette diminution a conduit Ă  un appauvrissement des forĂŞts en essences commercialisables. La prĂ©sente Ă©tude, rĂ©alisĂ©e dans la forĂŞt classĂ©e de la Besso s’inscrit dans une vision d’amĂ©lioration de la productivitĂ© des plantations forestières en vue de pallier au manque de ressources naturelles pour l’approvisionnement des industries du bois. Elle vise Ă  identifier un modèle de reboisement qui offre une hĂ©tĂ©rogĂ©nĂ©itĂ© spĂ©cifique importante tout en favorisant une meilleure croissance et qualitĂ© de bois. Les espèces des plantations utilisĂ©es sont Cedrela odorata L. (Meliaceae) et Gmelina arborea Roxb (Verbenaceae). Les travaux effectuĂ©s ont concernĂ© deux types de reboisement dans la forĂŞt classĂ©e de la Besso Ă  savoir, le reboisement de type plantation pure et le reboisement de type agroforĂŞt (Ă  base de cafĂ©ier ou de cacaoyer). Plusieurs paramètres (quantitatifs et qualitatifs) ont Ă©tĂ© Ă©valuĂ©s suivant les types d’essais. Il en ressort que le reboisement d’agroforĂŞt de type Cedrela odorata en association avec le cafĂ©ier est le milieu le plus hĂ©tĂ©rogène avec un indice de Shannon de 3,472 et une valeur d’équitabilitĂ© de 0,935. Cependant, Gmelina arborea en agroforĂŞt avec le cacaoyer prĂ©sente une bonne croissance annuelle (0,04 m). L’agroforĂŞt de type Gmelina arborea associĂ©e au cacaoyer a fourni les meilleures valeures de cylindricitĂ© et rectitude.   The forest cover of CĂ´te d'Ivoire estimated at around 16 million hectares in the 1900s has undergone a significant reduction. Indeed, it is estimated today at under three million hectares. This reduction is the combined effect a high rate of urbanization, agriculture and logging industry. This reduction has led to a depletion of the forests in marketable species. This study on the Besso classified forest is part of a vision to improve the productivity of forest plantations in order to compensate for the lack of natural resources to supply the wood industries. It aims to identify a reforestation model that offers significant specific heterogeneity while promoting better growth and wood quality. The plantation species used are Cedrela odorata L. (Meliaceae) and Gmelina arborea Roxb (Verbenaceae). Two types of reforestations in the Besso classified forest, were carried out namely, pure reforestation   plantation and agroforest (coffee and cocoa based). Several parameters (quantitative and qualitative) were evaluated according to the types of the trial. The results show that the reforestation of Cedrela odorata-coffee agroforest is the most heterogeneous environment with a Shannon index of 3.472 and an equitability value of 0.935. However, Gmelina arborea-cocoa agroforest has the best annual growth rate (0.04 m). The qualitative parameters (cylindricity and straightness) are better in the Gmelina arborea-cocoa agroforest

    Diversité floristique, Croissance et Qualité du Bois de Cedrela odorata L. (Meliaceae) et Gmelina arborea Roxb (Verbenaceae) dans Différents Systèmes de Reboisement de la Forêt Classée de la Besso (Sud-Est Côte d’Ivoire)

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    La couverture forestière de la CĂ´te d’Ivoire estimĂ©e Ă  environ 16 millions d’hectares dans les annĂ©es 1900 a connu une importante rĂ©duction. En effet, elle est estimĂ©e aujourd’hui Ă  moins de 3 millions d’hectares. Cette rĂ©duction est l’effet conjuguĂ© de l’urbanisation galopante, de l’agriculture et de l’exploitation des massifs forestiers en bois d’œuvre. Cette diminution a conduit Ă  un appauvrissement des forĂŞts en essences commercialisables. La prĂ©sente Ă©tude, rĂ©alisĂ©e dans la forĂŞt classĂ©e de la Besso s’inscrit dans une vision d’amĂ©lioration de la productivitĂ© des plantations forestières en vue de pallier au manque de ressources naturelles pour l’approvisionnement des industries du bois. Elle vise Ă  identifier un modèle de reboisement qui offre une hĂ©tĂ©rogĂ©nĂ©itĂ© spĂ©cifique importante tout en favorisant une meilleure croissance et qualitĂ© de bois. Les espèces des plantations utilisĂ©es sont Cedrela odorata L. (Meliaceae) et Gmelina arborea Roxb (Verbenaceae). Les travaux effectuĂ©s ont concernĂ© deux types de reboisement dans la forĂŞt classĂ©e de la Besso Ă  savoir, le reboisement de type plantation pure et le reboisement de type agroforĂŞt (Ă  base de cafĂ©ier ou de cacaoyer). Plusieurs paramètres (quantitatifs et qualitatifs) ont Ă©tĂ© Ă©valuĂ©s suivant les types d’essais. Il en ressort que le reboisement d’agroforĂŞt de type Cedrela odorata en association avec le cafĂ©ier est le milieu le plus hĂ©tĂ©rogène avec un indice de Shannon de 3,472 et une valeur d’équitabilitĂ© de 0,935. Cependant, Gmelina arborea en agroforĂŞt avec le cacaoyer prĂ©sente une bonne croissance annuelle (0,04 m). L’agroforĂŞt de type Gmelina arborea associĂ©e au cacaoyer a fourni les meilleures valeures de cylindricitĂ© et rectitude.   The forest cover of CĂ´te d'Ivoire estimated at around 16 million hectares in the 1900s has undergone a significant reduction. Indeed, it is estimated today at under three million hectares. This reduction is the combined effect a high rate of urbanization, agriculture and logging industry. This reduction has led to a depletion of the forests in marketable species. This study on the Besso classified forest is part of a vision to improve the productivity of forest plantations in order to compensate for the lack of natural resources to supply the wood industries. It aims to identify a reforestation model that offers significant specific heterogeneity while promoting better growth and wood quality. The plantation species used are Cedrela odorata L. (Meliaceae) and Gmelina arborea Roxb (Verbenaceae). Two types of reforestations in the Besso classified forest, were carried out namely, pure reforestation   plantation and agroforest (coffee and cocoa based). Several parameters (quantitative and qualitative) were evaluated according to the types of the trial. The results show that the reforestation of Cedrela odorata-coffee agroforest is the most heterogeneous environment with a Shannon index of 3.472 and an equitability value of 0.935. However, Gmelina arborea-cocoa agroforest has the best annual growth rate (0.04 m). The qualitative parameters (cylindricity and straightness) are better in the Gmelina arborea-cocoa agroforest

    Former Botanical Garden of ORSTOM (Côte d’Ivoire): What Remain after Thirty Years of Abandonment and Forest Restoration

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    Botanical gardens represent important places for ex situ conservation. One of these botanical gardens has been abandoned in Côte d’Ivoire for 30 years. This is the former botanical garden of ORSTOM. This study was conducted to determine the level of diversity of this former garden in order to assess the opportunity for its rehabilitation. The authors carried out inventories in 18 quadrats of 500 m2 through the vegetation to collect woody species. Dendrometric measurements (height, diameter) were also recorded to assess the structure of the site. A total of 190 species have been identified. They belong to 141 genera and 47 families. This former botanical garden contains important species because of their origin, status or particularity (threatened, endemic, rarity, etc.). A total of 19 threatened species including 2 endangered and west African endemic (Chrysophyllum azaguieanum J. Miège, Placodiscus pseudostipularis) were found at the site. Also, Chrysophyllum azaguieanum is declared extinct from Côte d’Ivoire. Four species are rare in the flora of Côte d’Ivoire: Balanites wilsoniana, Chrysophyllum azaguieanum, Gilletiodendron kisantuense and Loesenera kalantha. The most abundant species is Hopea odorata. Although this introduced species is considered globally vulnerable, it presents a risk of invasion in the forest of Côte d’Ivoire. The diameter and height structures show that all the stages of development are presented indicating a good regeneration on the site. Ultimately, this botanical garden deserves to be rehabilitated and especially urgent management of Hopea odorata is needed to prevent an invasion of this species

    Diversité Floristique, Croissance et Qualité du Bois de Cedrela odorata L. (Meliaceae) et Gmelina arborea Roxb (Verbenaceae) dans Différents Systèmes de Reboisement dans la Forêt Classée de la Besso (Sud-Est de la Côte d’Ivoire)

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    La couverture forestière de la CĂ´te d’Ivoire estimĂ©e Ă  environ 16 millions d’hectares dans les annĂ©es 1900 a connu une importante rĂ©gression et elle est passĂ©e de nos jours Ă  moins de 3 millions d’hectares. Cette rĂ©duction rĂ©sulte de l’effet conjuguĂ© de l’urbanisation galopante, de l’agriculture et de l’exploitation des massifs forestiers en bois d’œuvre. Cette diminution a conduit Ă  la perte des essences forestières commercialisables. La prĂ©sente Ă©tude, rĂ©alisĂ©e dans la forĂŞt classĂ©e de la Besso s’inscrit dans une vision d’amĂ©lioration de la productivitĂ© des plantations forestières pour un meilleur approvisionnement des industries du bois. Elle vise Ă  identifier le modèle de reboisement offrant une diversitĂ© floristique Ă©levĂ©e avec une meilleure croissance et qualitĂ© du bois. Les espèces utilisĂ©es sont Cedrela odorata L. (Meliaceae) et Gmelina arborea Roxb (Verbenaceae). Les travaux ont Ă©tĂ© effectuĂ©s sur deux types de reboisement (plantation pure et agroforĂŞt Ă  base de cafĂ©ier ou de cacaoyer). Plusieurs paramètres (quantitatifs et qualitatifs) ont Ă©tĂ© Ă©valuĂ©s suivant les types de reboisement. Il en ressort que l’agroforĂŞt de type Cedrela odorata en association avec le cafĂ©ier est le système le plus hĂ©tĂ©rogène avec un indice de Shannon de 3,47 et une valeur d’équitabilitĂ© de PiĂ©lou de 0,93. Cependant, Gmelina arborea en agroforĂŞt avec le cacaoyer prĂ©sente une bonne croissance annuelle (0,04 m). L’agroforĂŞt de type Gmelina arborea associĂ©e au cacaoyer a fourni les meilleures valeurs de cylindricitĂ© et de rectitude. Les rĂ©sultats de cette Ă©tude devraient aider Ă  la rĂ©habilitation des Ă©cosystèmes forestiers dĂ©gradĂ©s.   The forest cover of CĂ´te d'Ivoire estimated at around 16 million hectares in the 1900s has undergone a significant reduction and it is estimated today at under three million hectares. This reduction is the combined effect of a high rate of urbanization, agriculture, and logging industry. This reduction has led to a depletion of the forests in marketable species. This study on the Besso classified forest is part of a vision to improve the productivity of forest plantations for a better supply of wood industries. It aims to identify a reforestation model with a high floristic diversity with better growth and wood quality. The species used are Cedrela odorata L. (Meliaceae) and Gmelina arborea Roxb (Verbenaceae). Two types of reforestation in the Besso classified forest were carried out namely, pure reforestation plantation and agroforest (coffee and cocoa based). Several parameters (quantitative and qualitative) were evaluated according to the types of reforestation. The results show that the reforestation of Cedrela odorata-coffee agroforest is the most system environment with a Shannon index of 3.47 and a Pielou equitability value of 0.93. However, the Gmelina arborea-cocoa agroforest has the best annual growth rate (0.04 m). The qualitative parameters (cylindricity and straightness) are better in the Gmelina arborea-cocoa agroforest. All these results should help in the rehabilitation of degraded ecosystems and forests

    Diversité Et Dynamique Des Communautés De Vers De Terre De Trois Formations Végétales Dans Une Savane Humide De l’Afrique De l’Ouest (Lamto, Côte d’Ivoire)

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    The maintenance and stability of many terrestrial ecosystems are in part related to the ecosystem functions and services of soil organisms. The present study aims to evaluate the influence of litter biomass produced by three types of vegetation in the Lamto reserve on the dynamics of earthworm community. Each vegetation formations has been subdivided into 3 parcels. These parcels were geo-referenced using a GPS and mapped using QGIS software. For each plot, 25 points were randomly selected using their GPS coordinates. The litters were collected by manual collection to evaluate their biomass. Monoliths of the TSBF (Tropical Soil Biology) type were dug in order to collect the earthworms by direct manual sorting. Also, soil clumps were collected to determine the organic matter levels by the method of lossto-fire. In total, 12 species of earthworms belonging to 3 ecological categories were collected. The forest block had the highest density of earthworms with a predominance of epigeic earthworms followed by grassy savannah with a predominance of endogeic earthworms. The wooded savannah has the lowest density of earthworms with a predominance of anecic earthworms. In terms of species richness, the grassy savannah contained the greatest number of earthworm species followed by the wooded savannah and the forest block that had the same number of species. In the three vegetations formations, it was found that earthworm densities were correlated with litter biomass as well as organic matter levels (correlation between earthworm density and litter biomass: r 2 =0, 75; correlation between density of earthworms and the rate of organic matter: r 2 =0, 93)

    Caractérisation des Facteurs de Menace sur une Population Sauvage de Mones de Lowe Cercopithecus lowei Thomas, 1923 dans la Relique Forestière l’Université Nangui Abrogoua, Côte d’ivoire

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    Les Primates non-humains sont observĂ©s dans les milieux pĂ©riurbains sans protection, oĂą leur survie est menacĂ©e, notamment Ă  cause de l’urbanisation galopante qui rĂ©duit l’habitat et la disponibilitĂ© alimentaire. C’est le cas d’une population de Mones de Lowe, espèce vulnĂ©rable selon l’Union Internationale pour la Conservation de la Nature, localisĂ©e dans la forĂŞt de l’UniversitĂ© NANGUI ABROGOUA (UNA), Ă  Abidjan en CĂ´te d’Ivoire. Le prĂ©sent travail a pour but d’approfondir les connaissances sur les principales menaces qui pèsent sur cette population de Primates isolĂ©e dans cette forĂŞt de 10 hectares bordĂ©e de plantations expĂ©rimentales et familiales. Un suivi journalier des Mones en utilisant la mĂ©thode d’observation par balayage rĂ©gulier des groupes et les observations Ad libitum d’évĂ©nements rares a permis de noter les indices directs d'agression sur les Mones et leur habitat pendant 24 mois, en 2018 et 2019. L’identification des indices indirects s’est basĂ©e sur des interviews semi-directs de personnes qui frĂ©quentent ladite forĂŞt. Les rĂ©sultats montrent que trois facteurs directs liĂ©s aux activitĂ©s anthropiques constituent les plus grandes menaces sur ces Mones et leur habitat : la pollution physique avec 71, 24 % des observations (N = 1510) ; le dĂ©frichement agricole avec 15, 21 % et le braconnage qui totalise 13,50 % de l’ensemble des facteurs de menace. Au sujet des facteurs indirects, les personnes interrogĂ©es (N = 401) Ă©voquent par ordre d’importance, le manque de volontĂ© administrative Ă  32,7%, l’inaction des autoritĂ©s en charge de la protection de la faune Ă  20,9 % et le manque de surveillance de ces Primates (16,8 %).   Non-human Primates are observed in peri-urban environments without protection, where their survival is threatened, notably because of the galloping urbanization that reduces habitat and food availability. This is the case of a population of Lowe's monkey, a vulnerable species according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature, located in the forest of the UniversitĂ© NANGUI ABROGOUA (UNA), in Abidjan, CĂ´te d'Ivoire. The goal of this study is describing the main threats to that population of Primates isolated in this forest of about 10 hectares bordered by experimental and family plantations. Daily monitoring of Mones using the regular group scan method of observation and Ad libitum observations of rare events recorded direct evidence of aggression on this Lowe's monkeys and their habitat over a 24 month in 2018 and 2019.The identification of indirect indices, semi-direct interviews were conducted with people who practice that forest. Results show that three direct factors related to anthropogenic activities are the greatest threats to those groups of Primates and that forest of UNA:  physical pollution with 71.24% of observations (N = 1510); agricultural clearing with 15.21%; and poaching which represents 13.50% of all threat factors. As for indirect factors, the respondents (N = 401) mentionned, by order of importance, the lack of administrative will (32.7%); the lack of action by the authorities in charge of wildlife protection (20.9%) and the lack of surveillance of these groups of primates (16.8%)

    Caractérisation des Facteurs de Menace sur la Population Sauvage de Mones de Lowe Cercopithecus lowei Thomas, 1923 dans la Relique Forestière de l’Université NANGUI ABROGOUA, Côte d’Ivoire

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    Les primates non-humains (PNH) sont observĂ©s dans les milieux pĂ©riurbains sans protection, oĂą leur survie est menacĂ©e, notamment Ă  cause de l’urbanisation galopante qui rĂ©duit l’habitat et la disponibilitĂ© alimentaire. C’est le cas d’une population de 13 individus de Mones de Lowe, une espèce vulnĂ©rable selon la liste rouge de l’UICN, localisĂ©e dans la forĂŞt de l’UniversitĂ© NANGUI ABROGOUA (UNA), Ă  Abidjan en CĂ´te d’Ivoire. Le prĂ©sent travail a pour but d’approfondir les connaissances sur les principales menaces qui pèsent sur cette population de primates isolĂ©e dans cette forĂŞt de 14 hectares bordĂ©e de plantations expĂ©rimentales et familiales. Un suivi journalier des Mones en utilisant la mĂ©thode d’observation par balayage rĂ©gulier des groupes et les observations Ad libitum d’évĂ©nements rares a permis de noter les indices directs d'agression sur les Mones et leur habitat pendant 24 mois, de janvier 2018 Ă  dĂ©cembre 2019. L’identification des indices indirects s’est basĂ©e sur des interviews semi-structurĂ©s de personnes qui frĂ©quentent ladite forĂŞt. Les rĂ©sultats montrent que trois facteurs directs liĂ©s aux activitĂ©s anthropiques constituent les plus grandes menaces sur ces Mones et de leur habitat : la pollution physique avec 71, 24 % des observations (N = 1510) ; le dĂ©frichement agricole avec 15, 21 % et le braconnage qui totalise 13,50 % de l’ensemble des facteurs de menace. Au sujet des facteurs indirects, les personnes interrogĂ©es (N = 401) Ă©voquent par ordre d’importance, le manque de volontĂ© administrative Ă  32,7%, l’inaction des autoritĂ©s en charge de la protection de la faune Ă  20,9 % et le manque de surveillance de ces Primates (16,8 %).              Non-human primates are observed in peri-urban environments without any legal protection, where their survival is threatened, notably because of the galloping urbanization that reduces habitat and food availability. This is the case of Lowe's monkey (Cercopithecus lowei) population, a vulnerable species according to the IUCN RedList, located in the forest relic of the NANGUI ABROGOUA University (UNA), in Abidjan, CĂ´te d'Ivoire. The goal of this study is describing the main threats to the isolated primate population in this forest of 14 hectares bordered by experimental and family plantations. Daily monitoring of Mones using a regular group scan method of observation and Ad libitum observations of rare events recorded direct evidence of aggression on this Lowe's monkeys and their habitat over a 24 month in 2018 and 2019.The identification of indirect indices, semi-direct interviews were conducted with people who use this forest. Results show that three direct factors related to anthropogenic activities are the greatest threats to the primate groups and the UNA forest: physical pollution with 71.24% of observations (N = 1510); agricultural encroachment with 15.21%; and poaching which represents 13.50% of all threat factors. For indirect factors, the respondents (N = 401) mentioned, by order of importance, the lack of administrative will (32.7%); the lack of action by the authorities in charge of wildlife protection (20.9%) and the lack of surveillance of these primate groups (16.8%)

    Effets de cinq prétraitements sur la germination du vène (Pterocarpus erinaceus Poir., Fabaceae) dans la Réserve du Haut Bandama (Côte d'Ivoire)

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    Pterocarpus erinaceus Poir (Fabaceae) is a sudanese multipurpose species ranging in Côte d'Ivoire, at the north of the 8 th parallel. This species is object of illegal exploitation and the survival of its natural populations is strongly threatened. The sustainable management of this resource requires an improvement of its germinative capacities. To achieve this goal, five pretreatments were applied to seeds collected from a population of Pterocarpus erinaceus in the “Réserve du Haut Bandama”. These treatments include flowing water soaking during three days or 72 hours (STE 3), water soaking at 60 ° C (STE 60), and at 100° C (STE 100), removal of the shell of the fruit (SD) and light fire burning (SF) as well as a control (no pretreatment applied, SND). Germination rate (TG), germination time (DG) and mean germination time (GMT) were evaluated. The results showed that the husked seeds have good germination ability with a rate of 68.5% and a germination time of a week. It also appears that the seeds of the species are very sensitive to heat. Indeed no germination was observed under the pretreatments of light fire burning and soaking in boiling water (100 °C). In addition to this, the shell of the fruit is a factor of dormancy (seed coat / pericarp dormancy). This dormancy can be removed with soaking inflowing water
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