Antibiotic resistance in bacteria isolated from indigenous slaughter chicken in Nairobi, Kenya

Background: Indigenous chicken, which end-up being consumed by humans, are normally raised free-range in villages; feeding from the ground which could easily be contaminated by substances, including bacteria, brought-in by flood water during heavy rains. The infected chickens may then serve as sources of the bacterial strains to humans who handle and/or consume them. If these bacteria are pathogenic to humans and resistant to antibiotics, it will be difficult to treat the resultant human diseases using the particular antibiotic(s).Objective: To establish antibiotic susceptibility/resistance patterns of bacteria isolated from intestines of slaughtered indigenous chickens after heavy rains in Nairobi, Kenya.Design: This was a cross-sectional study.Subjects: Bacterial isolates from chicken intestinal-content obtained from three slaughterhouses in Nairobi.Methodology: Antibiotic susceptibility testing was carried out on Escherichia, Staphylococcus and Streptococcus using disc diffusion technique.Setting: Laboratory testing at the University of Nairobi Bacteriology laboratory.Results: Escherichia isolates were highly resistant to Ampicillin, Sulphamethoxazole and Amoxicillin at 100%, 93.3%, 93.3% respectively; 13.3% were resistant to Gentamycin, while all were susceptible to Ciprofloxacin. Staphylococcus isolates were resistant to Clindamycin at 73.3%, Tetracycline at 46.7%, Chloramphenicol at 40%, but all were susceptible to Sulphamethoxazole and Erythromycin. Streptococcus isolates were resistant to Sulphamethoxazole, Clindamycin, Erythromycin, Tetracycline, Chloramphenicol at 93.3%, 86.7%, 60%, 60% and 53.3% respectively; the three isolates showed multidrug resistance.Conclusion: The study showed that antibiotic resistance is still a threat to the lives of animals/humans, if the resistance gets transferred to pathogenic bacteria it will be difficult to cure the disease caused by antibiotic resistant pathogens. It is therefore, recommended that, before prescribing antibiotics, antibiotic susceptibility testing should be done. Also, prudent usage and disposal of antibiotics is recommended in order to reduce development and transfer of resistance within and across bacteria

A Retrospective Study of Factors associated with Newcastle Disease Outbreaks in Village Indigenous Chickens

Although the epidemiology of Newcastle disease in commercial poultry systems is well documented, its ecology in indigenous birds, especially in tropics, is not adequately reported. The objective of this study, therefore, was to determine the risk factors associated with occurrence of Newcastle disease in village indigenous chickens. The study was carried out in five agro –ecological zones and seventy five households keeping indigenous chickens. Farmers were randomly selected and assessed on whether they understood Newcastle disease including knowing its local name and clinical signs manifested by the affected birds. Those who did not fit into the above category were excluded from further interviews. Data on management practices, incidence of diseases and risk factors associated with Newcastle disease outbreaks were collected using a questionnaire and analysed using statistical package. The prevalence rate of Newcastle disease was highest (93.8%) in the dry zone (Low midland 5) and lowest (50%) in cool wet zone (Lower Highland 1). Newcastle disease outbreaks were significantly associated with the following factors namely: confinement of birds in all ecological zones except in lower midland 5 where most cases were reported without confinement; mode of disposal of infected birds, carcasses and poultry faecal matter; dry seasons in the dry zones just before the rains; wind conditions; short intermittent temperature changes and the restocking of farms with chickens from the markets (P0.05) associated with Newcastle disease outbreaks. The responses varied across the seasons and between the agro – ecological zones. In conclusion, the study has shown that several factors namely: confinement; cold or very hot temperatures; winds; introduction of market birds and disposal of manure and sick birds are major risk factors to occurrence of Newcastle disease in indigenous chickens. It is recommended that flock owners be educated on Newcastle disease transmission and prevention.Key – words: risk factors, agro–ecological zones, confinement, hot and cold season

Mortality as the primary constraint to enhancing nutritional and financial gains from poultry: A multi-year longitudinal study of smallholder farmers in western Kenya

BACKGROUND:Chickens are a widely held economic and nutritional asset in rural Africa and are frequently managed by women. Despite potential benefits of larger flock sizes, the average number of chickens kept at the household level is reported to be low. Whether this reflects decision-making to maximize benefits per unit labor by voluntary reduction of chicken numbers by consumption or sale versus involuntary losses due to mortality is a significant gap in knowledge relevant to improving smallholder household welfare. METHODS:In a 4-year longitudinal study of 1,908 smallholder households in rural western Kenya, the number of chickens owned by quarterly census at each household was determined. Households reported gains and losses of chicken over the immediate previous quarter. Gains were classified as on-farm or off-farm; losses were classified as voluntary (sales, gifts, consumption) or involuntary (mortality, unclassified loss). RESULTS:The mean number of chickens owned over the 16 quarters was 10, consistent with prior cross-sectional data. Involuntary losses represented 70% of total off-take, while voluntary off-take represented the remaining 30%. Mortality composed 60% of total reported off-take and accounted for most of the involuntary losses. Household consumption, sales, and gifts represented 18%, 9%, and 3% of off-take, respectively. CONCLUSION:The overwhelming majority of off-take can be classified as involuntary off-take, principally due to mortality, that does not reflect the owner's decision to maximize value through nutritional gain, income, or social capital. This strongly suggests that there is substantial opportunity to enhance the value of chickens as an asset, both nutritional and income generating, for smallholder households living at poverty level. Our findings suggest that programs emphasizing community level poultry vaccination and feed supplementation are much more likely to be effective than those solely focused on providing chickens

Vaccination of household chickens results in a shift in young children’s diet and improves child growth in rural Kenya

Childhood growth faltering remains unacceptably high in sub-Saharan Africa. Rural communities dependent on household food production with limited off-farm income or liquid assets to bridge seasonal food availability are especially vulnerable. A cross-sectional survey in Siaya County, Kenya identified 23.5 and 4.8% of children under 5 y of age as stunted and wasted, respectively, using height-for-age Z (HAZ) scores to detect stunting and weight-for-height Z (WHZ) scores for wasting. Although these households are classified as living in poverty or extreme poverty with very limited off-farm income, households commonly have on-farm resources that could be developed to improve nutrition. While 95% of these households have chickens and consumption of eggs was shown to increase childhood growth by an average of 5%, the average flock size is small and constrained by high mortality due to infectious disease. We hypothesized that interventions to relieve this constraint would translate into household decisions influencing the diets and growth of children. Here, we show that vaccination of chickens against Newcastle disease has a causal impact on children’s consumption of animal source foods rich in protein and micronutrients relative to a high-carbohydrate, grain-based diet. Children in treatment households (chicken vaccination) showed overall increases in scores for both HAZ and WHZ relative to control households, benefiting both girls and boys. The findings demonstrate the impact of directing interventions at common on-farm assets managed by women in rural communities and support programs to enhance productivity at the household level