New Genetic Findings in Schizophrenia: Is there Still Room for the Dopamine Hypothesis of Schizophrenia?

Schizophrenia is a highly heritable disorder, but the identification of specific genes has proven to be a difficult endeavor. Genes involved in the dopaminergic system are considered to be major candidates since the “dopamine hypothesis” of impairment in dopaminergic neurotransmission is one of the most widely accepted hypotheses of the etiology of schizophrenia. The overall findings from candidate studies do provide some support for the “dopamine hypothesis.” However, results from the first systematic genome-wide association (GWA) studies have implicated variants within ZNF804A, NRGN, TCF4, and variants in the MHC region on chromosome 6p22.1. Although these genes may not immediately impact on dopaminergic neurotransmission, it remains possible that downstream impairments in dopaminergic function are caused. Furthermore, only a very small fraction of all truly associated genetic variants have been detected and many more associated variants will be identified in the future by GWA studies and alternative approaches. The results of these studies may allow a more comprehensive re-evaluation of the dopamine hypothesis

Геолого-промышленные типы месторождений германия, методика поисков и разведки

Recent genetic studies found the A allele of the variant rs1006737 in the alpha 1C subunit of the L-type voltage-gated calcium channel (CACNA1C) gene to be overrepresented in patients suffering from bipolar disorder, schizophrenia or major depression. While the functions underlying the pathophysiology of these psychiatric disorders are yet unknown, impaired performance in verbal fluency tasks is an often replicated finding. We investigated the influence of the rs1006737 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) on verbal fluency and its neural correlates.Brain activation was measured with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) during a semantic verbal fluency task in 63 healthy male individuals. They additionally performed more demanding verbal fluency tasks outside the scanner. All subjects were genotyped for CACNA1C rs1006737.For the behavioral measures outside the scanner, rs1006737genotype had an effect on semantic but not on lexical verbal fluency with decreased performance in risk-allele carriers. In the fMRI experiment, while there were no differences in behavioural performance, increased activation in the left inferior frontal gyrus as well as the left precuneus was found in risk-allele carriers in the semantic verbal fluency task.The rs1006737 variant does influence language production on a semantic level in conjunction with the underlying neural systems. These findings are in line with results of studies in bipolar disorder, schizophrenia and major depression and may explain some of the cognitive and brain activation variation found in these disorders

Characterization of the serine-/threonine protein kinase SRPK3 in Drosophila melanogaster and phosphorylation studies on synapsin

In einer vorangegangenen Arbeit konnte eine hypomorphe Mutation innerhalb des Genlokus einer putativen Serin-/Threonin-Kinase als Auslöser der Aggregatbildung des Aktive-Zone- Proteins Bruchpilot in larvalen Motoneuronaxonen identifiziert werden (Nieratschker, 2004). Aufgrund der Homologien dieser Kinase zu SR-Proteinkinasen wurde der Name Serin- /Threonin-Proteinkinase 3 (SRPK3) vorgeschlagen. Laut ursprünglicher Annotation der „Flybase“ (http://flybase.bio.indiana.edu) codiert der Genlokus der Srpk3, der auf dem linken Arm des dritten Chromosoms innerhalb der Region 79D4 lokalisiert ist und sich über ca. 10,3 kb erstreckt, für zwei Transkripte (Srpk3-RC und Srpk3-RB). Diese beiden Transkripte haben unterschiedliche Transkriptions- und Translationsstartpunkte und unterscheiden sich in ihrem ersten kodierenden Exon, ab dem vierten Exon sind sie allerdings identisch. Das Srpk3-RCTranskript umfasst ca. 4,2 kb, das Srpk3-RB-Transkript ca. 3,8 kb. Die von diesen Transkripten kodierten Proteine bestehen aus 816 (Srpk3-RC) bzw. 749 (Srpk3-RB) Aminosäuren. Diese beiden ursprünglich annotierten Transkripte konnten durch RT-PCR-Experimente bestätigt werden. Dabei wurde auch ein zusätzliches, alternativ gespleißtes Exon von 159 bp entdeckt, das beiden Transkripten zugeordnet werden kann. Somit codiert der Srpk3-Genlokus für mindestens vier Transkripte, die Transkripte der RC/RF-Transkriptgruppe mit (Srpk3-RF) und ohne (Srpk3-RC) das alternativ gespleißte Exon und die Transkripte der RB/RETranskriptgruppe mit (Srpk3-RE) und ohne (Srpk3-RB) das alternativ gespleißte Exon. Die Existenz eines weiteren Transkriptes Srpk3-RD, die in der aktuellen Version der „Flybase“ annotiert ist, konnte durch RT-PCR-Experimente nicht nachgewiesen werden. Zu Beginn dieser Arbeit lag eine hypomorphe Mutante für die SRPK3 schon vor (Srpk3P1; Eberle, 1995). Diese Linie trägt eine P-Elementinsertion innerhalb des ersten Exons der RC/RF-Transkriptgruppe, die das Leseraster dieser Transkriptgruppe zerstört, so dass in dieser Linie nur die RB/RE-Transkriptgruppe gebildet werden kann. Wie bereits erwähnt, konnte diese Mutation in vorangegangenen Arbeiten bereits als der Auslöser der Aggregatbildung des Bruchpilot-Proteins in larvalen Motoneuronaxone, sowie einiger Verhaltensdefekte identifiziert werden (Nieratschker, 2004; Bock 2006). Diese Verhaltensdefekte ähneln stark denen, die durch einen knock-down der Bruchpilot-Expression mittels RNAi ausgelöst werden (Wagh et al., 2006; Bock, 2006), was auf eine Interaktion beider Proteine schließen lässt. Um nun den Beweis führen zu können, dass tatsächlich diese Mutation die beobachteten Phänotypen verursacht, wurden Rettungsversuche durchgeführt. Die Srpk3-RF-cDNA war dabei in der Lage die durch die hypomorphe Mutation der SRPK3 verursachten Phänotypen vollständig, oder zumindest teilweise zu retten (vgl. auch Bock, 2006; Bloch, 2007). Damit konnte belegt werden, dass die hypomorphe Mutation der SRPK3 tatsächlich die in der Mutante Srpk3P1 beobachteten Phänotypen verursacht. Um die durch in situ Hybridisierung erhaltenen Daten zur Lokalisation der SRPK3 im larvalen Gehirn (Nieratschker, 2004) bestätigen, sowie weitere Daten erhalten zu können, wurden Isoform-spezifische Antisera gegen die SRPK3 generiert. Diese Antiseren sind in der Lage überexprimiertes Protein zu detektieren (Bloch, 2007), allerdings ist es mit diesen Antiseren nicht möglich die SRPK3 in wildtypischen Präparaten nachzuweisen. Weitere Daten zur Lokalisation der SRPK3, die durch die Verwendung eines SRPK3-eGFPFusionsproteins erhalten wurden, zeigten, dass eine der ektopisch überexprimierten SRPK3- Isoformen mit Bruchpilot an der Aktiven Zone kolokalisiert. Dieses Ergebnis, in Verbindung mit den durch die Mutation der SRPK3 verursachten Bruchpilot-Aggregaten in larvalen Motoneuronaxonen und den Verhaltensdefekten, gibt Hinweise auf eine mögliche direkte Interaktion beider Proteine….In a previous study, a hypomorphic mutation in the gene locus of a putative serine-/threonine kinase was found to cause aggregates of the active zone protein Bruchpilot in larval motoneuron axons (Nieratschker, 2004). Because of its high homology to SR-protein kinases this gene was named serine-/threonine protein kinase 3 (Srpk3). The 10,3 kb large Srpk3 gene locus is located on the left arm of the third chromosome in the chromosomal region 79D4. According to an earlier annotation in “flybase” (http://flybase.bio.indiana.edu) the Srpk3 gene codes for two transcripts of 4,2 (Srpk3-RC) and 3,8 kb (Srpk3-RB). These two transcripts use different transcription and translation start sites, but from the fourth exon on they are identical. The Srpk3-RC and Srpk3-RB transcripts code for proteins of 816 and 749 amino acids respectively. The existence of these two originally annotated transcripts could be verified by RT-PCR. In addition, an alternatively spliced exon of 159 bp was identified, which is part of both groups of transcripts (Srpk3-RF and Srpk3-RE). Therefore the Srpk3 gene locus codes for at least four transcripts. Srpk3-RB and Srpk3-RC do not contain the newly identified, alternatively spliced exon, whereas Srpk3-RF and Srpk3-RE do. The existence of another transcript (Srpk3- RD) annotated in the current version of “flybase” could not be confirmed by RT-PCR experiments. The hypomorphic BRPK mutant Srpk3P1, which has a P-element insertion in the first exon of the RC/RF group of transcripts that destroys the open reading frame of those isoforms, already existed (Eberle, 1995). Therefore in that line only the RB/RE isoforms are expressed. That hypomorphic mutation was found to cause Bruchpilot aggregates in larval motoneuron axons (Nieratschker, 2004) and in addition several behavioral deficits (Bock, 2006). The behavioral deficits are similar to those caused by a genetic knock-down of the Bruchpilot expression using RNAi (Wagh et al., 2006; Bock, 2006). This observation points towards an exclusive interaction of both proteins. To prove that in fact the mutation of the SRPK3 causes the observed phenotypes, rescue experiments were performed. We were able to revert the mutant phenotypes by expressing the Srpk3-RF cDNA in the nervous system (see also Bock, 2006; Bloch, 2007). Therefore mutation of the SRPK3 indeed causes the observed phenotypes in the hypomorphic BRPK mutant (Srpk3P1). To confirm the data obtained by in situ hybridization on larval brains (Nieratschker, 2004) and to gain more knowledge regarding the localization of the SRPK3, isoform specific antisera have been generated. These antisera recognize over-expressed protein (Bloch, 2007), but they are not able to recognize SRPK3 in wild type animals. Further data about localization of SRPK3 could be provided by using ectopically overexpressed GFP-tagged SRPK3 isoforms. SRPK3-GFP colocalizes with Bruchpilot at the presynaptic active zone. This result along with the Bruchpilot aggregates in larval motoneuron axons and the behavioral deficits of SRPK3 mutants provide further evidence for a possible interaction of both proteins. To investigate, if a complete loss of SRPK3 expression alters the phenotypes observed in the hypomorphic SRPK3 mutant, a SRPK3 null mutant was generated by jump-out mutagenesis. The phenotypic analyses performed with the hypomorphic line Srpk3P1were repeated with the SRPK3 null mutant. It became obvious that the phenotypes were not enhanced by complete loss of SRPK3 expression (also see Bloch, 2007). Regarding the Bruchpilot aggregates in larval motoneuron axons, no significant differences between hypomorphic mutant and null mutant were observed, however behavioral deficits seem to be more severe in the hypomorph (Bloch, 2007)….