Translation Initiation Rate Determines the Impact of Ribosome Stalling on Bacterial Protein Synthesis

Ribosome stalling during translation can be caused by a number of characterized mechanisms. However, the impact of elongation stalls on protein levels is variable, and the reasons for this are often unclear. To investigate this relationship, we examined the bacterial translation elongation factor P (EF-P), which plays a critical role in rescuing ribosomes stalled at specific amino acid sequences including polyproline motifs. In previous proteomic analyses of both Salmonella and Escherichia coli efp mutants, it was evident that not all proteins containing a polyproline motif were dependent on EF-P for efficient expression in vivo . The α- and β-subunits of ATP synthase, AtpA and AtpD, are translated from the same mRNA transcript, and both contain a PPG motif; however, proteomic analysis revealed that AtpD levels are strongly dependent on EF-P, whereas AtpA levels are independent of EF-P. Using these model proteins, we systematically determined that EF-P dependence is strongly influenced by elements in the 5′-untranslated region of the mRNA. By mutating either the Shine-Dalgarno sequence or the start codon, we find that EF-P dependence correlates directly with the rate of translation initiation where strongly expressed proteins show the greatest dependence on EF-P. Our findings demonstrate that polyproline-induced stalls exert a net effect on protein levels only if they limit translation significantly more than initiation. This model can be generalized to explain why sequences that induce pauses in translation elongation to, for example, facilitate folding do not necessarily exact a penalty on the overall production of the protein

Molecular Evolution of Protein-RNA Mimicry as a Mechanism for Translational Control

Elongation factor P (EF-P) is a conserved ribosome-binding protein that structurally mimics tRNA to enable the synthesis of peptides containing motifs that otherwise would induce translational stalling, including polyproline. In many bacteria, EF-P function requires post-translational modification with (R)-β-lysine by the lysyl-tRNA synthetase paralog PoxA. To investigate how recognition of EF-P by PoxA evolved from tRNA recognition by aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases, we compared the roles of EF-P/PoxA polar contacts with analogous interactions in a closely related tRNA/synthetase complex. PoxA was found to recognize EF-P solely via identity elements in the acceptor loop, the domain of the protein that interacts with the ribosome peptidyl transferase center and mimics the 3\u27-acceptor stem of tRNA. Although the EF-P acceptor loop residues required for PoxA recognition are highly conserved, their conservation was found to be independent of the phylogenetic distribution of PoxA. This suggests EF-P first evolved tRNA mimicry to optimize interactions with the ribosome, with PoxA-catalyzed aminoacylation evolving later as a secondary mechanism to further improve ribosome binding and translation control

Beta-lysine Discrimination by Lysyl-tRNA Synthetase

Elongation factor P is modified with (R)‐β‐lysine by the lysyl‐tRNA synthetase (LysRS) paralog PoxA. PoxA specificity is orthogonal to LysRS, despite their high similarity. To investigate α‐ and β‐lysine recognition by LysRS and PoxA, amino acid replacements were made in the LysRS active site guided by the PoxA structure. A233S LysRS behaved as wild type with α‐lysine, while the G469A and A233S/G469A variants decreased stable α‐lysyl‐adenylate formation. A233S LysRS recognized β‐lysine better than wildtype, suggesting a role for this residue in discriminating α‐ and β‐amino acids. Both enantiomers of β‐lysine were substrates for tRNA aminoacylation by LysRS, which, together with the relaxed specificity of the A233S variant, suggest a possible means to develop systems for in vivo co‐translational insertion of β‐amino acids

Divergent Protein Motifs Direct EF-P Mediated Translational Regulation in \u3cem\u3eSalmonella\u3c/em\u3e and \u3cem\u3eEscherichia coli\u3c/em\u3e

Elongation factor P (EF-P) is a universally conserved bacterial translation factor homologous to eukaryotic/archaeal initiation factor 5A. In Salmonella, deletion of the efp gene results in pleiotropic phenotypes, including increased susceptibility to numerous cellular stressors. Only a limited number of proteins are affected by the loss of EF-P, and it has recently been determined that EF-P plays a critical role in rescuing ribosomes stalled at PPP and PPG peptide sequences. Here we present an unbiased in vivo investigation of the specific targets of EF-P by employing stable isotope labeling of amino acids in cell culture (SILAC) to compare the proteomes of wild-type and efp mutant Salmonella. We found that metabolic and motility genes are prominent among the subset of proteins with decreased production in the Δefp mutant. Furthermore, particular tripeptide motifs are statistically overrepresented among the proteins downregulated in efp mutant strains. These include both PPP and PPG but also additional motifs, such as APP and YIRYIR, which were confirmed to induce EF-P dependence by a translational fusion assay. Notably, we found that many proteins containing polyproline motifs are not misregulated in an EF-P-deficient background, suggesting that the factors that govern EF-P-mediated regulation are complex. Finally, we analyzed the specific region of the PoxB protein that is modulated by EF-P and found that mutation of any residue within a specific GSCGPG sequence eliminates the requirement for EF-P. This work expands the known repertoire of EF-P target motifs and implicates factors beyond polyproline motifs that are required for EF-P-mediated regulation

The tRNA Synthetase Paralog PoxA Modifies Elongation Factor-P with (R)-β-lysine

The lysyl-tRNA synthetase paralog PoxA modifies elongation factor P (EF-P) with α-lysine at low efficiency. Cell-free extracts containing non–α-lysine substrates of PoxA modified EF-P with a change in mass consistent with addition of β-lysine, a substrate also predicted by genomic analyses. EF-P was efficiently functionally modified with (R)-β-lysine but not (S)-β-lysine or genetically encoded α-amino acids, indicating that PoxA has evolved an activity orthogonal to that of the canonical aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases

(R)-β-lysine Modified Elongation Factor P Functions in Translation Elongation

Post-translational modification of bacterial elongation factor P (EF-P) with (R)-β-lysine at a conserved lysine residue activates the protein in vivo and increases puromycin reactivity of the ribosome in vitro. The additional hydroxylation of EF-P at the same lysine residue by the YfcM protein has also recently been described. The roles of modified and unmodified EF-P during different steps in translation, and how this correlates to its physiological role in the cell, have recently been linked to the synthesis of polyproline stretches in proteins. Polysome analysis indicated that EF-P functions in translation elongation, rather than initiation as proposed previously. This was further supported by the inability of EF-P to enhance the rate of formation of fMet-Lys or fMet-Phe, indicating that the role of EF-P is not to specifically stimulate formation of the first peptide bond. Investigation of hydroxyl-(β)-lysyl-EF-P showed 30% increased puromycin reactivity but no differences in dipeptide synthesis rates when compared with the β-lysylated form. Unlike disruption of the other genes required for EF-P modification, deletion of yfcM had no phenotypic consequences in Salmonella. Taken together, our findings indicate that EF-P functions in translation elongation, a role critically dependent on post-translational β-lysylation but not hydroxylation

PoxA, YjeK and Elongation Factor P Coordinately Modulate Virulence and Drug Resistance in \u3cem\u3eSalmonella enterica\u3c/em\u3e

We report an interaction between poxA, encoding a paralog of lysyl tRNA-synthetase, and the closely linked yjeK gene, encoding a putative 2,3-β-lysine aminomutase, that is critical for virulence and stress resistance in Salmonella enterica. Salmonella poxA and yjeK mutants share extensive phenotypic pleiotropy, including attenuated virulence in mice, an increased ability to respire under nutrient-limiting conditions, hypersusceptibility to a variety of diverse growth inhibitors, and altered expression of multiple proteins, including several encoded on the SPI-1 pathogenicity island. PoxA mediates posttranslational modification of bacterial elongation factor P (EF-P), analogous to the modification of the eukaryotic EF-P homolog, eIF5A, with hypusine. The modification of EF-P is a mechanism of regulation whereby PoxA acts as an aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase that attaches an amino acid to a protein resembling tRNA rather than to a tRNA

Cyclic Rhamnosylated Elongation Factor P Establishes Antibiotic Resistance in \u3cem\u3ePseudomonas aeruginosa\u3c/em\u3e

Elongation factor P (EF-P) is a ubiquitous bacterial protein that is required for the synthesis of poly-proline motifs during translation. In Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica, the posttranslational β-lysylation of Lys34 by the PoxA protein is critical for EF-P activity. PoxA is absent from many bacterial species such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, prompting a search for alternative EF-P posttranslation modification pathways. Structural analyses of P. aeruginosa EF-P revealed the attachment of a single cyclic rhamnose moiety to an Arg residue at a position equivalent to that at which β-Lys is attached to E. coli EF-P. Analysis of the genomes of organisms that both lack poxA and encode an Arg32-containing EF-P revealed a highly conserved glycosyltransferase (EarP) encoded at a position adjacent to efp. EF-P proteins isolated from P. aeruginosa ΔearP, or from a ΔrmlC::acc1 strain deficient in dTDP-l-rhamnose biosynthesis, were unmodified. In vitro assays confirmed the ability of EarP to use dTDP-l-rhamnose as a substrate for the posttranslational glycosylation of EF-P. The role of rhamnosylated EF-P in translational control was investigated in P. aeruginosa using a Pro4-green fluorescent protein (Pro4GFP) in vivo reporter assay, and the fluorescence was significantly reduced in Δefp, ΔearP, and ΔrmlC::acc1 strains. ΔrmlC::acc1, ΔearP, and Δefp strains also displayed significant increases in their sensitivities to a range of antibiotics, including ertapenem, polymyxin B, cefotaxim, and piperacillin. Taken together, our findings indicate that posttranslational rhamnosylation of EF-P plays a key role in P. aeruginosa gene expression and survival

Predicting the mechanism and rate of H-NS binding to at-rich DNA

Bacteria contain several nucleoid-associated proteins that organize their genomic DNA into the nucleoid by bending, wrapping or bridging DNA. The Histone-like Nucleoid Structuring protein H-NS found in many Gram-negative bacteria is a DNA bridging protein and can structure DNA by binding to two separate DNA duplexes or to adjacent sites on the same duplex, depending on external conditions. Several nucleotide sequences have been identified to which H-NS binds with high affinity, indicating H-NS prefers AT-rich DNA. To date, highly detailed structural information of the H-NS DNA complex remains elusive. Molecular simulation can complement experiments by modelling structures and their time evolution in atomistic detail. In this paper we report an exploration of the different binding modes of H-NS to a high affinity nucleotide sequence and an estimate of the associated rate constant. By means of molecular dynamics simulations, we identified three types of binding for H-NS to AT-rich DNA. To further sample the transitions between these binding modes, we performed Replica Exchange Transition Interface Sampling, providing predictions of the mechanism and rate constant of H-NS binding to DNA. H-NS interacts with the DNA through a conserved QGR motif, aided by a conserved arginine at position 93. The QGR motif interacts first with phosphate groups, followed by the formation of hydrogen bonds between acceptors in the DNA minor groove and the sidechains of either Q112 or R114. After R114 inserts into the minor groove, the rest of the QGR motif follows. Full insertion of the QGR motif in the minor groove is stable over several tens of nanoseconds, and involves hydrogen bonds between the bases and both backbone and sidechains of the QGR motif. The rate constant for the process of H-NS binding to AT-rich DNA resulting in full insertion of the QGR motif is in the order of 106 M−1s−1, which is rate limiting compared to the non-specific association of H-NS to the DNA backbone at a rate of 108 M−1s−1