One size doesn’t fit all: cross-sectional associations between neighborhood walkability, crime and physical activity depends on age and sex of residents

Abstract Background Low-income African American adults are disproportionately affected by obesity and are also least likely to engage in recommended levels of physical activity (Flegal et al. JAMA 303(3):235-41, 2010; Tucker et al. Am J Prev Med 40(4):454-61, 2011). Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) is an important factor for weight management and control, as well as for reducing disease risk (Andersen et al. Lancet 368(9532):299-304, 2006; Boreham and Riddoch J Sports Sci 19(12):915-29, 2001; Carson et al. PLoS One 8(8):e71417, 2013). While neighborhood greenspace and walkability have been associated with increased MVPA, evidence also suggests that living in areas with high rates of crime limits MVPA. Few studies have examined to what extent the confluence of neighborhood greenspace, walkability and crime might impact MVPA in low-income African American adults nor how associations may vary by age and sex. Methods In 2013 we collected self-reported data on demographics, functional limitations, objective measures of MVPA (accelerometry), neighborhood greenspace (geographic information system), and walkability (street audit) in 791 predominantly African-American adults (mean age 56 years) living in two United States (U.S.) low-income neighborhoods. We also acquired data from the City of Pittsburgh on all crime events within both neighborhoods. Exposure: To examine cross-sectional associations of neighborhood-related variables (i.e., neighborhood greenspace, walkability and crime) with MVPA, we used zero-inflated negative binomial regression models. Additionally, we examined potential interactions by age (over 65 years) and sex on relationships between neighborhood variables and MVPA. Results Overall, residents engaged in very little to no MVPA regardless of where they lived. However, for women, but not men, under the age of 65 years, living in more walkable neighborhoods was associated with more time engaged in MVPA in (β = 0.55, p = 0.007) as compared to their counterparts living in less walkable areas. Women and men age 65 years and over spent very little time participating in MVPA regardless of neighborhood walkability. Neither greenspace nor crime was associated with MVPA in age-sex subgroups. Conclusions Neighborhood walkability may play a stronger role on MVPA than accessible greenspace or crime in low-income urban communities. Walkability may differentially impact residents depending on their age and sex, which suggests tailoring public health policy design and implementation according to neighborhood demographics to improve activity for all.http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/135725/1/12889_2016_Article_3959.pd

Finishing the euchromatic sequence of the human genome

The sequence of the human genome encodes the genetic instructions for human physiology, as well as rich information about human evolution. In 2001, the International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium reported a draft sequence of the euchromatic portion of the human genome. Since then, the international collaboration has worked to convert this draft into a genome sequence with high accuracy and nearly complete coverage. Here, we report the result of this finishing process. The current genome sequence (Build 35) contains 2.85 billion nucleotides interrupted by only 341 gaps. It covers ∼99% of the euchromatic genome and is accurate to an error rate of ∼1 event per 100,000 bases. Many of the remaining euchromatic gaps are associated with segmental duplications and will require focused work with new methods. The near-complete sequence, the first for a vertebrate, greatly improves the precision of biological analyses of the human genome including studies of gene number, birth and death. Notably, the human enome seems to encode only 20,000-25,000 protein-coding genes. The genome sequence reported here should serve as a firm foundation for biomedical research in the decades ahead

Combined cocaine hydrolase gene transfer and anti-cocaine vaccine synergistically block cocaine-induced locomotion.

Mice and rats were tested for reduced sensitivity to cocaine-induced hyper-locomotion after pretreatment with anti-cocaine antibody or cocaine hydrolase (CocH) derived from human butyrylcholinesterase (BChE). In Balb/c mice, direct i.p. injection of CocH protein (1 mg/kg) had no effect on spontaneous locomotion, but it suppressed responses to i.p. cocaine up to 80 mg/kg. When CocH was injected i.p. along with a murine cocaine antiserum that also did not affect spontaneous locomotion, there was no response to any cocaine dose. This suppression of locomotor activity required active enzyme, as it was lost after pretreatment with iso-OMPA, a selective BChE inhibitor. Comparable results were obtained in rats that developed high levels of CocH by gene transfer with helper-dependent adenoviral vector, and/or high levels of anti-cocaine antibody by vaccination with norcocaine hapten conjugated to keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH). After these treatments, rats were subjected to a locomotor sensitization paradigm involving a "training phase" with an initial i.p. saline injection on day 1 followed by 8 days of repeated cocaine injections (10 mg/kg, i.p.). A 15-day rest period then ensued, followed by a final "challenge" cocaine injection. As in mice, the individual treatment interventions reduced cocaine-stimulated hyperactivity to a modest extent, while combined treatment produced a greater reduction during all phases of testing compared to control rats (with only saline pretreatment). Overall, the present results strongly support the view that anti-cocaine vaccine and cocaine hydrolase vector treatments together provide enhanced protection against the stimulatory actions of cocaine in rodents. A similar combination therapy in human cocaine users might provide a robust therapy to help maintain abstinence

Scheme for testing locomotor responses to cocaine.

<p>Rat locomotor experiments were carried out in four distinct phases. Phase 1, “Acclimation", consisted of 3 consecutive days of 45-min in the test chamber with no interventions. Phase 2, “Training", involved 9 days of 90 min in the chamber with an i.p. injection of saline (S) or cocaine, 10 mg/kg C) at the 45-min time point. Phase 3, “No Drug", involved 15 “rest days" in the home cage with no interventions. Phase 4, “Challenge", was 2 days in the chamber with i.p. saline or cocaine at the respective 45-min time points.</p

Average antibody (µg/ml) and/or enzyme (mU/ml) levels for the VAC, VEC, VEC+VAC treated rats during the Training and Cocaine Challenge Phases.

<p>Cocaine hydrolase activity and anti-cocaine antibody levels were assessed midway through the training phase (day 8) and at the onset of the challenge phase (day 29). Means and standard errors are shown. Neither of the measured variables changed significantly across the course of the experiment, and there were no significant differences for either variable across treatment groups.</p

Combined vaccine and vector treatment reduces cocaine-induced locomotor activity even after repeated cocaine injections.

<p>Shown are beam breaks per 5 min interval (mean ± SEM). Left panels: initial two days of training phase. Middle panels: last day of training phase. Right panels: both days of challenge phase. Statistical significance: * significantly higher locomotor activity after cocaine injections compared to saline (p<0.05); <b>&</b> significantly higher cocaine-induced locomotor activity than in the VAC+VEC group (p<0.01); <b>@</b> significantly higher cocaine-induced locomotor activity after the last cocaine injection compared to first injection (p<0.01); <b>#</b> significantly greater cocaine-induced locomotor activity in control group compared to all others (p<0.05).</p

Mean daily beam breaks after cocaine during training phase.

<p>Data represent rat locomotor activity in 8 daily 45 min sessions immediately following cocaine injections. Statistical significance: * significantly <i>lower</i> locomotor activity in VEC+VAC group compared to all other groups (p<0.05); <b>†</b> significantly <i>greater</i> locomotor activity on the final training-phase day compared to the first day (p<0.05).</p