Gestion de diabète insulino-traité et hypoglycémie : rôle de la technologie et révision des recommandations de traitement

Vivre avec une maladie chronique a des implications multiples sur une personne atteinte et ses proches. Ces implications sont majeures en cas de diabète insulino-traité comme le diabète de type 1 (DT1) et le diabète de type 2 avancé (DT2). Bien qu’un contrôle glycémique optimal soit indispensable pour prévenir et ralentir les complications micro-vasculaires chroniques, l’atteinte d’un tel objectif avec l’intensification de l’insulinothérapie se heurte à un risque important d’hypoglycémie. Les progrès technologiques : pompes à insuline, systèmes de surveillance de la glycémie interstitielle en continu (SSGC) et couplage de ces dispositifs avec un algorithme dans les systèmes de pancréas artificiel (PA) mono-hormonal avec insuline seule, ou bi-hormonal avec ajout de glucagon permettent de plus en plus de rendre le traitement plus simple (automatisation), plus efficace (moins d’hyperglycémies) et plus sûr (moins d’hypoglycémies). Cependant ces technologies apportent de nouveaux défis que nous avons explorés. À travers les projets de cette thèse : 1) Nous avons exploré la gestion de diabète avec le recours à la technologie de point de vue des utilisateurs actuels pour les pompes et les utilisateurs potentiels futurs pour les systèmes PA. Nos questionnaires ont mis l’accent sur l’enthousiasme des patients pour l’adoption de ces technologies et la perception positive de leur rôle dans le contrôle glycémique et la réduction de la glycémie; toutefois, plusieurs problèmes techniques ont été rapportés avec les pompes (nécessitant une amélioration de la technologie, un meilleur recensement ou une meilleure évaluation des effets indésirables) et une préférence d’être capable au besoin d’ignorer les recommandations du PA. 2) Nous avons testé pour la première fois le système PA développé à Montréal pour les patients vivant avec un DT2 insulino-traité et démontré son applicabilité pour cette population avec amélioration du contrôle glycémique en comparaison aux traitements conventionnels ouvrant la porte aux études plus vastes en vie réelle. 3) Trois stratégies en PA ont été aussi testé pour la première fois pour améliorer le contrôle glycémique pendant l’exercice pratiqué dans la période postprandiale (une situation d’hyperinsulinémie et variations rapides de la glycémie). Nous avons comparé : a) un contrôle glycémique exclusivement basé sur les données de la SSCG, b) une annonce avant le repas visant une glycémie plus haute et c) une annonce combinant la réduction du bolus du repas avec la cible glycémique plus haute. L’option qui consiste à annoncer l’exercice avant le repas à l’algorithme en combinant une cible glycémique plus haute avec une réduction de tiers du bolus prandial constituait l’approche la plus pratique pour éviter les hypoglycémies pendant un exercice d’intensité modérée pour 1h débuté 90 minutes post-repas. 4) Le système PA bi-hormonal est avantageux pour la réduction de l’hypoglycémie mais la formulation actuelle du glucagon présente la problématique de la stabilité avec une recommandation d’utilisation immédiate. Nous avons démontré sa stabilité pour 24 heures en contexte de PA ce qui permet de mener des études pour explorer le bénéfice du PA bi-hormonal. 5) Nous avons également exploré la question de sécurité de cette nouvelle utilisation du glucagon en mini-bolus et de façon chronique et nous avons proposé une liste de paramètres à surveiller dans les études prolongées compte tenu l’effet pléiotropique du glucagon sur la majorité des organes. 6) Nous avons démontré que le traitement des épisodes d’hypoglycémie non-sévères résiduels qui surviennent lors du traitement par PA restent difficiles à traiter avec seulement 17% des épisodes corrigés 15 min après l’ingestion des 15 grammes de glucides tel que recommandé. 7) Nous avons finalement exploré si le traitement des épisodes d’hypoglycémies non sévères pourrait être modulé en fonction du seuil glycémique atteint et de la quantité initiale des glucides consommés. Nous avons alors testé l’ingestion de 16 g de glucides (selon les recommandations) contre 32 g de glucides (plus représentatif des pratiques des patients) à deux seuils d’hypoglycémie (3,0 à 3,5 mmol/L et 3,0 mmol/L). Nos résultats confirment la difficulté de traitement de ces épisodes (lenteur de la correction et besoin fréquent de second traitement) quel que soit le seuil de traitement et/ou la dose initiale de glucides consommés. Ainsi, nous avons démontré les avantages et les limites de la technologie pour le diabète insulino-traité, y compris les systèmes PA, en allant de la préférence des patients pour la technologie, à l’utilité du PA dans le DT2 avancé, à la nécessité de annoncer l’exercice à l’algorithme avant le repas pour l'exercice postprandial, à la stabilité de la formulation disponible du glucagon et les paramètres cliniques à surveiller dans les essais à long terme du PA. Cette thèse a finalement montré le manque d’efficacité du traitement de l'hypoglycémie non-sévère par consommation de glucides oraux même dans le cadre du PA.Living with diabetes, a chronic disease, has multiple implications for a person and their loved ones. These implications are major in the case of insulin-treated diabetes such as type 1 diabetes (T1D) and advanced type 2 diabetes (T2D). Although optimal glycemic control is essential to prevent and slow chronic microvascular complications, achieving such a goal through intensive insulin therapy has the drawback of increased risks of hypoglycemia. Technological advances: insulin pumps, continuous glucose monitoring systems (CGMS) and coupling of these devices with an algorithm in artificial pancreas (AP) systems, mono-hormonal (insulin) or bi-hormonal (with glucagon), can make diabetes treatment simpler (automation), more effective (less hyperglycemia) and safer (less hypoglycemia). However, these technologies bring up new challenges that we have explored through the projects of this thesis: 1) We have examined the use of technology in diabetes management from the perspective of current users for insulin pumps and potential future users for AP systems. Our online surveys highlighted the enthusiasm of patients for technology adoption and the positive perception they hold about its role in glycemic management; nevertheless, several technical problems have been reported with insulin pumps (hence the need to improve the identification of adverse events) and a preference to ignore AP recommendations if necessary. 2) We have tested for the first time the mono-hormonal AP system developed in Montreal for patients living with insulin-treated T2D and demonstrated its applicability for this population with improved glucose management in comparison to conventional treatments opening the door to larger studies in real life settings. 3) Three strategies in AP were also tested for the first time to improve glucose management during exercise practiced in the postprandial period (a situation of hyperinsulinemia and rapid changes in blood sugar). We compared: a) glycemic control based exclusively on CGMS data, b) a pre-meal announcement of exercise to the algorithm that increases target glucose levels, and c) a combination of exercise announcement with meal bolus reduction. The last strategy offered the most practical approach to avoid hypoglycemia during moderate-intensity aerobic exercise of one hour duration that is practiced 90 minutes post-meal. 4) The bi-hormonal AP system is advantageous for the reduction of hypoglycemia but the current commercial glucagon formulation (lyophilized powder) is not stable in liquid form and is only approved for immediate use post reconstitution in an acid solution. We have however demonstrated its stability for 24 hours in the context of AP use (mini-boluses through pumps), which makes it possible to conduct studies to explore the benefit of bi-hormonal AP until new stable formulations are approved. 5) We have also explored the question of the safety of this new use of glucagon in mini-bolus and in chronic way. We have proposed a list of parameters to be monitored in prolonged bi-hormonal AP studies given the pleiotropic effect of glucagon on the majority of organs. 6) We have demonstrated that during AP control (mono-or bi-hormonal), residual non-severe hypoglycaemic episodes remain difficult to treat with a resolution of only 17% of these episodes 15 min after ingestion of the recommended 15 grams of carbohydrates (CHO). 7) We have finally investigated whether non-severe hypoglycaemia treatment with oral CHO could be modulated according to the hypoglycemia threshold reached and the initial amount of CHO consumed. We have thus tested 16 g CHO (recommended by guidelines) versus 32 g CHO (closer to patients’ practices) at two hypoglycemia thresholds (3.0- 3.5 mmol/L and 3.0 mmol/L). Our results confirm the difficulty of treating these episodes (slow correction and frequent need for a second treatment) regardless of the treatment threshold and/or initial CHO dose consumed. Therefore, we have demonstrated the advantages and limits of technology in insulin-treated diabetes including AP systems, by revealing the preferences of patients for technology use, the usefulness of AP in insulin treated T2D, the need of pre-meal announcement to the algorithm during postprandial exercise, the stability of commercial glucagon formulation and the clinical parameters to be monitored in long-term trials. This thesis finally showed the compromised efficacy of non-severe hypoglycaemia treatment with recommended oral CHO even in the context of AP

L’efficacité du pancréas artificiel externe durant l’exercice chez les adultes atteints de diabète de type 1

Problématique : l’activité physique est évitée par les patients atteints de diabète de type 1 (DbT1) malgré ses bénéfices et ce par crainte du risque d’hypoglycémie majoré par l’exercice. Le pancréas artificiel externe est une nouvelle technologie de trois composantes qui fonctionnent en boucle fermée, un système de surveillance continue du glucose (SSCG), un algorithme et une pompe à insuline. Peu d’études ont été conçues spécifiquement pour tester le pancréas artificiel pendant l’exercice. De plus, la précision des SSCG pourrait être compromise par les changements rapides du glucose au cours de l’exercice. Objectifs : 1) Tester et comparer l’efficacité des deux versions du pancréas artificiel, simple-hormone (insuline seule) et double-hormone (insuline et glucagon), pour prévenir l’hypoglycémie durant deux types d’exercice, en continu et par intervalles, chez les patients DbT1. 2) Comparer la performance de deux SSCG, Dexcom et Enlite, au repos et pendant l’exercice. Résultats : 1) Avec le système à simple-hormone comparé au double-hormone, 31,2% des participants ont eu au moins un épisode d’hypoglycémie nécessitant un traitement par glucides vs. 9% (p=0,02) et 24,4 ± 27,6 % de temps était passé en hypoglycémie (glucose plasmatique < 4 mmol/l) vs. 4,4 ± 14,3% (p=0,0001), respectivement. 2) Les moyennes de différence relative absolue par rapport au glucose plasmatique pour Dexcom vs. Enlite étaient comparables au repos 13,8 vs. 12,4% (p=0,53) et pendant l’exercice 22,5% vs. 20,4% (p=0,58). La comparaison repos vs exercice était significatif pour Dexcom (p=0,005) et Enlite (p=0,007). Conclusions : le pancréas artificiel à double-hormone engendre un moindre risque d’hypoglycémie et permet un meilleur contrôle de la glycémie que le système à simple-hormone. Les deux SSCG, Dexcom et Enlite ont une bonne performance, sont comparables, mais sont tous les deux moins précis durant l’exercice qu’au repos.Background: Physical activity is often avoided by patients with Type 1 diabetes (T1D) despite its health benefits due to fear of its elevated hypoglycemic risk. The external artificial pancreas is a new technology that controls glucose via a closed-loop strategy of three components; a continuous glucose monitoring system (CGMS), an algorithm and an insulin pump. Studies of the artificial pancreas included physical activity sessions but were rarely designed to specifically assess its efficacy during exercise. Moreover, the precision of the CGMS can be affected by the rapidly changing blood glucose levels during exercise. Objectives: 1) To test and compare the efficacy of the two versions of the artificial pancreas, single-hormone (insulin only) and dual-hormone (insulin plus glucagon) during two types of exercise, continuous and interval, in patients with T1D. 2) To compare the performance of two CGMS, Dexcom and Enlite, at rest and during exercise. Results: 1) During single-hormone artificial pancreas in comparison to dual-hormone, 31.2% of the participants had at least one hypoglycemic episode necessitating treatment vs. 9% (p=0,02) and 24.4 ± 27.6 % of the time spent in hypoglycemia (plasma glucose < 4 mmol/l) vs. 4.4 ± 14.3% (p=0.0001), respectively. 2) The mean relative absolute differences (MARD) in reference to plasma glucose for Dexcom vs. Enlite were at rest 13.8 vs. 12.4% (p=0.53) and during exercise 22.5% vs. 20.4% (p=0.58). The comparison of mean ARD`s at rest vs. exercise were significant for Dexcom (p=0.005) and Enlite (p=0.007). Conclusions: The dual-hormone artificial pancreas was shown to be better than single-hormone at achieving hypoglycaemia-free control during exercise in adults with T1D. Dexcom and Enlite demonstrated comparable overall performances during rest and physical activity with a lower accuracy for both sensors during exercise

The Benefits and Limits of Technological Advances in Glucose Management Around Physical Activity in Patients Type 1 Diabetes

Physical activity is highly recommended for patients living with type 1 diabetes (T1D) due to its varied health benefits. Nevertheless, glucose management, during and in the hours following exercise, represents a great challenge for these patients who most often end up leading a sedentary life style. Important technological advances in insulin delivery devices and glucose monitoring are now available and continue to progress. These technologies could be used to alleviate glucose management related to physical activity in T1D. Continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) helps patients observe the trends of glycemic fluctuations when exercising and in the following night to deal pre-emptively with hypoglycemic risks and treat hypoglycemic episodes in a timely manner. Insulin pumps offer the flexibility of adjusting insulin basal rates and boluses according to patient's specific needs around exercise. The artificial pancreas links CGM to pump through an intelligent hormone dosing algorithm to close the loop of glucose control and has thus the potential to ease the burden of exercise in T1D. This review will examine and discuss the literature related to physical activity practice using each of these technologies. The aim is to discuss their benefits as well as their limitations and finally the additional research needed in the future to optimize their use in T1D

Non-severe hypoglycemia in type 1 diabetes: a randomized crossover trial comparing two quantities of oral carbohydrates at different insulin-induced hypoglycemia ranges

AimsNon-severe hypoglycemia (NS-H) is challenging for people living with type 1 diabetes (PWT1D) and often results from relative iatrogenic hyper-insulinemia. Current guidelines recommend a one-size-fits-all approach of 15–20 g of simple carbohydrates (CHO) every 15 min regardless of the triggering conditions of the NS-H event. We aimed to test different amounts of CHO to treat insulin-induced NS-H at various glucose ranges.MethodsThis is a randomized, four-way, crossover study involving PWT1D, testing NS-H treatment outcomes with 16 g vs. 32 g CHO at two plasma glucose (PG) ranges: A: 3.0–3.5 mmol/L and B: &lt;3.0 mmol/L. Across all study arms, participants consumed an additional 16 g of CHO if PG was still &lt;3.0 mmol/L at 15 min and &lt;4.0 mmol/L at 45 min post-initial treatment. Subcutaneous insulin was used in a fasting state to induce NS-H. Participants had frequent venous sampling of PG, insulin, and glucagon levels.ResultsParticipants (n = 32; 56% female participants) had a mean (SD) age of 46.1 (17.1) years, had HbA1c at 54.0 (6.8 mmol/mol) [7.1% (0.9%)], and had a diabetes duration of 27.5 (17.0) years; 56% were insulin pump users. We compared NS-H correction parameters between 16 g and 32 g of CHO for range A, 3.0–3.5 mmol/L (n = 32), and range B, &lt;3.0 mmol/L (n = 29). Change in PG at 15 min for A: 0.1 (0.8) mmol/L vs. 0.6 (0.9) mmol/L, p = 0.02; and for B: 0.8 (0.9) mmol/L vs. 0.8 (1.0) mmol/L, p = 1.0. Percentage of participants with corrected episodes at 15 min: (A) 19% vs. 47%, p = 0.09; (B) 21% vs. 24%, p = 1.0. A second treatment was necessary in (A) 50% vs. 15% of participants, p = 0.001; (B) 45% vs. 34% of participants, p = 0.37. No statistically significant differences in insulin and glucagon parameters were observed.ConclusionsNS-H, in the context of hyper-insulinemia, is difficult to treat in PWT1D. Initial consumption of 32 g of CHO revealed some advantages at the 3.0–3.5 mmol/L range. This was not reproduced at lower PG ranges since participants needed additional CHO regardless of the amount of initial consumption.Clinical trial registrationClinicalTrials.gov, identifier NCT03489967

Impact of COVID-19 on cardiovascular testing in the United States versus the rest of the world

Objectives: This study sought to quantify and compare the decline in volumes of cardiovascular procedures between the United States and non-US institutions during the early phase of the coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Background: The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted the care of many non-COVID-19 illnesses. Reductions in diagnostic cardiovascular testing around the world have led to concerns over the implications of reduced testing for cardiovascular disease (CVD) morbidity and mortality. Methods: Data were submitted to the INCAPS-COVID (International Atomic Energy Agency Non-Invasive Cardiology Protocols Study of COVID-19), a multinational registry comprising 909 institutions in 108 countries (including 155 facilities in 40 U.S. states), assessing the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on volumes of diagnostic cardiovascular procedures. Data were obtained for April 2020 and compared with volumes of baseline procedures from March 2019. We compared laboratory characteristics, practices, and procedure volumes between U.S. and non-U.S. facilities and between U.S. geographic regions and identified factors associated with volume reduction in the United States. Results: Reductions in the volumes of procedures in the United States were similar to those in non-U.S. facilities (68% vs. 63%, respectively; p = 0.237), although U.S. facilities reported greater reductions in invasive coronary angiography (69% vs. 53%, respectively; p < 0.001). Significantly more U.S. facilities reported increased use of telehealth and patient screening measures than non-U.S. facilities, such as temperature checks, symptom screenings, and COVID-19 testing. Reductions in volumes of procedures differed between U.S. regions, with larger declines observed in the Northeast (76%) and Midwest (74%) than in the South (62%) and West (44%). Prevalence of COVID-19, staff redeployments, outpatient centers, and urban centers were associated with greater reductions in volume in U.S. facilities in a multivariable analysis. Conclusions: We observed marked reductions in U.S. cardiovascular testing in the early phase of the pandemic and significant variability between U.S. regions. The association between reductions of volumes and COVID-19 prevalence in the United States highlighted the need for proactive efforts to maintain access to cardiovascular testing in areas most affected by outbreaks of COVID-19 infection

Single-Hormone Artificial Pancreas Use in Diabetes: Clinical Efficacy and Remaining Challenges

International audienceIN BRIEF Artificial pancreas systems are rapidly developing and constitute the most promising technology for insulin-requiring diabetes management. Single-hormone systems (SH-AP) that deliver only insulin and have a hybrid design that necessitates patients’ interventions around meals and exercise are the first to appear on the market. Trials with SH-AP have demonstrated improvement in time spent with blood glucose levels within target ranges, with a concomitant decrease in hypoglycemia. Longer and larger trials involving different patient populations are ongoing to further advance this important technology

The Benefits and Limits of Technological Advances in Glucose Management Around Physical Activity in Patients Type 1 Diabetes

International audienc