Integrated Passanger Transport

Trend porasta upotrebe osobnog vozila uočava se u mnogim razvijenim gradovima, koji se u određenoj mjeri, suočavaju sa problemom prometnog zagušenja. Kako bi se smanjila prekapacitiranost prometnica te podigla konkurentnost različitih oblika javnog gradskog prijevoza, posljednjih se godina intenzivno razvijaju različiti modeli i strategije koji nude rješenja za navedenu problematiku. Jedan od sustava koji se dosada pokazao kao kvalitetno rješenje je integrirani oblik prijevoza putnika. Integrirani prometni sustav je način koordinirane upotrebe više vrsta javnog masovnog prijevoza osoba koje provodi više prijevoznika. Temelji se na što većem broju multimodalnih terminala sa što više stajališta različitih oblika javnog prijevoza, uz primjenu zajedničke tarife u cilju postizanja što jednostavnijeg i bržeg presjedanja te kvalitetnije organizacije javnog prijevoza putnika. Nadalje, omogućuje dugoročno planiranje i održivo poslovanje, optimalno subvencioniranje, kvalitetno prostorno planiranje te, u konačnici, bolju kvalitetu življenja. Ovim radom nastojat će se naglasiti kako je proces uvođenja integriranog oblika prijevoza putnika dugotrajan proces koji omogućuje održivost sustava javnog gradskog prijevoza.Trend of increasing use of personal vehicles can be seen in many developed cities which, to some extent, face the problem of traffic congestion. In order to reduce the overcapacity of roads and raise the competitiveness of the various modes of public transport, in recent years has been developing various models and strategies that offer solutions to this issue. One of the systems that are so far proved to be a good solution is a form of intergrated transport. An integrated transport system is a coordinated use of multiple types of public mass transportation of persons who are carried out by multiple carriers. It is based on a larger number of multimodal terminals with as many stations of different forms of public transport, with the application of common tariffs in order to achieve a simpler and faster transfers and better organization of public passenger transport. Furthermore, it enables a long-term planning and sustainable business, the optimal subsidizing, quality urban planning and, ultimately, a better quality of life. This paper attempts to point out that the introduction of integrated forms of passenger transport is a lengthy process that allows the sustainability of urban transport system

The five dimensions of B cell tolerance

B cell tolerance has been generally understood to be an acquired property of the immune system that governs antibody specificity in ways that avoid auto‐toxicity. As useful as this understanding has proved, it fails to fully explain the existence of auto‐reactive specificities in healthy individuals and contribution these may have to health. Mechanisms underlying B cell tolerance are considered to select a clonal repertoire that generates a collection of antibodies that do not bind self, ie tolerance operates more or less in three dimensions that largely spare autologous cells and antigens. Yet, most B lymphocytes in humans and probably in other vertebrates are auto‐reactive and absence of these auto‐reactive B cells is associated with disease. We suggest that auto‐reactivity can be embodied by extending the concept of tolerance by two further dimensions, one of time and circumstance and one that allows healthy cells to actively resist injury. In this novel concept, macromolecular recognition by the B cell receptor leading to deletion, anergy, receptor editing or B cell activation is extended by taking account of the time of development of normal immune responses (4th dimension) and the accommodation (or tolerance) of normal cells to bound antibody, activation of complement, and interaction with inflammatory cells (fifth dimension). We discuss how these dimensions contribute to understanding B cell biology in health or disease.Peer Reviewedhttps://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/153034/1/imr12813.pdfhttps://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/153034/2/imr12813_am.pd

Immunostimulation and Immunoinhibition of Premalignant Lesions

BACKGROUND: The immune reaction may be either stimulatory or inhibitory to tumor growth, depending upon the local ratio of immune reactants to tumor cells. HYPOTHESIS: A tumor-stimulatory immune response may be essential for survival of a neoplasm in vivo and for the biological progression from a premalignant lesion to a malignancy. Neither a positive nor a negative correlation between the magnitude of an immune-cell infiltrate and a cancer's prognosis can reveal whether the infiltrate was stimulating or inhibiting to the tumor's growth unless the position on the nonlinear curve that relates tumor growth to the magnitude of the immune reaction is known. DISCUSSION: This hypothesis is discussed in relation to the development of human malignant melanomas and colorectal cancers

Does the immune reaction cause malignant transformation by disrupting cell-to-cell or cell-to-matrix communications?

Tumor progression: In many (perhaps in all) tumor systems, a malignant cancer is preceded by a benign lesion. Most benign lesions do not transform to malignancy and many regress. The final transformative step to malignancy differs from the preceding steps in, among other things, that it often occurs in the absence of the original carcinogenic stimulus. Mechanism of immunostimulation: Relatively low titers of specific immune reactants are known to stimulate, but cell-to-cell or cell-to-matrix interactions appear to be major inhibitors of tumor-growth. Therefore, it seems reasonable to hypothesize that the mechanism of immunostimulation may be an interference with cell-to-cell or cell-to-matrix communication by a sub-lethal immune-reaction. Discussion: While the above hypothesis remains unproven, some evidence suggests that immunity may have a major facilitating effect on tumor growth especially at the time of malignant transformation. There is even some evidence suggesting that transformation in vivo may seldom occur in the absence of immunostimulation of the premalignant lesion. Positive selection by the immune reaction may be the reason that tumors are immunogenic