Atomic Analogy of Poverty

An analogy between the model of an atom and poverty of an individual in a poverty field is presented to construe that poverty levels are quantized in similar notions as in the models of an atom. This analogy provides a rational explanation of the observed phenomena in society in part as well as it can be used to predict future observations. Concepts proposed in this paper may lead to a framework to quantify poverty, absolute or relative, and suggest enhanced collaboration between moral science and natural science to study poverty dynamic

Characterisation of species and diversity of Anopheles gambiae Keele Colony

Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto was recently reclassified as two species, An. coluzzii and An. gambiae s.s., in wild-caught mosquitoes, on the basis of the molecular form, denoted M or S, of a marker on the X chromosome. The An. gambiae Keele line is an outbred laboratory colony strain that was developed around 12 years ago by crosses between mosquitoes from 4 existing An. gambiae colonies. Laboratory colonies of mosquitoes often have limited genetic diversity because of small starting populations (founder effect) and subsequent fluctuations in colony size. Here we describe the characterisation of the chromosomal form(s) present in the Keele line, and investigate the diversity present in the colony using microsatellite markers on chromosome 3. We also characterise the large 2La inversion on chromosome 2. The results indicate that only the M-form of the chromosome X marker is present in the Keele colony, which was unexpected given that 3 of the 4 parent colonies were probably S-form. Levels of diversity were relatively high, as indicated by a mean number of microsatellite alleles of 6.25 across 4 microsatellites, in at least 25 mosquitoes. Both karyotypes of the inversion on chromosome 2 (2La/2L+a) were found to be present at approximately equal proportions. The Keele colony has a mixed M- and S-form origin, and in common with the PEST strain, we propose continuing to denote it as an An. gambiae s.s. line

Blind Naso-Endotracheal Intubation

Patients with ‘difficult endotracheal intubation’ may present for elective or emergency surgery. We present a case of a 29 year old female patient who required general anaesthesia for resection of a large mandibular osteosarcoma where the blind nasoendotracheal intubation technique was used

Effects of Land Use Change on the Livelihoods of Indigenous Communities: A Case of the Ogiek Community of Mau East, Kenya

Land and other natural resources are critical for the survival of any community especially the indigenous and those living in marginal areas. Traditionally, Ogiek community was hunters and gatherers and has distinctive histories of interaction with the natural environment. They have depended on forests for food, medicine and shelter. In the 1990s’ Kenyan government initiated land resettlement of Ogiek households living in of Mau East, the land was demarcated and allocated to individuals in order to enable them live in a modern way and practice new methods of agriculture and trade. The study therefore, sought to investigate effects of land resettlement on socio-economic livelihoods of Ogiek households in Mau East. Through a cross –sectional survey, primary data was collected using sets of structured and semi-structured questionnaires and focused group discussions while secondary data was obtained from documented materials. To select respondents to be interviewed, snowball sampling was used to pick the household heads from the five locations in Mau East to give 150 respondents. The unit of analysis was household heads from the five locations in Mau East. The data was analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Subsequently, descriptive statistics was used to describe the results, and Chi-square performed to explore the relative importance of a number of variables in examining the effects of land resettlement on socio-economic livelihoods of the Ogiek household. The results indicated that, resettlement led to introduction of formal education, primary health care, spread of Christianity, new sources of income, destabilization of social values and norms. It was concluded that, land resettlement transformed the Ogiek’s lifestyle of hunting and gathering to that of agriculture and entrepreneurship. It is recommended that creation of awareness and increasing access to educational facilities, infrastructure and technological improvements and, marketing of farm produces is needed. Further, it is anticipated that the findings of the study will add to the knowledge of policy makers on improving the socio-economic livelihoods of the Ogiek households in general. Keywords: Natural Environment, Land Resettlement, Livelihoods, Ogie

Coping Strategies Employed by Indigenous Communities After Resettlement: A Case of the Ogiek Community of Mau East, Kenya

Indigenous people pursue traditional livelihood strategies and related forms of employment and occupation as part of their right to exist, have their cultures and ways of life. Natural resources are significant for the survival of any community especially the indigenous and those living in marginal areas. The Ogiek are one of Kenya’s indigenous’ communities who traditionally depended on forests for their livelihoods.  Before the initiation of land resettlement the Ogiek were involved in the local and regional trading networks, bartering honey and meat from wild animals. Honey was eaten, stored for future use, brewed into beer and traded. It is said to have been the main product for barter trade. In the 1990s’ Kenyan government initiated land resettlement of Ogiek households living in of Mau East, the land was demarcated and allocated to individuals in order to enable them live in a modern way and practice new methods of agriculture and trade. The study therefore, sought to evaluate coping strategies employed by Ogiek households after resettlement Through a cross –sectional survey, primary data was collected using sets of structured and semi-structured questionnaires and focused group discussions while secondary data was obtained from documented materials.. To select respondents to be interviewed, snowball sampling was used to pick the household heads from the five locations in Mau East to give 150 respondents. The unit of analysis was household heads from the five locations in Mau East. The data was analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Subsequently, descriptive statistics was used to describe the results, and Chi-square performed to explore the relative importance of a number of variables in evaluating coping strategies employed by Ogiek households after resettlement. The results indicated that, Ogiek households practiced farming and herding, business, bee keeping, formal and informal employment, and sale of charcoal and timbers as coping strategies after resettlement. It was concluded that, land resettlement transformed the Ogiek’s lifestyle of hunting and gathering to that of agriculture and entrepreneurship. It is recommended that creation of awareness of new methods of farming, technological improvements and, marketing of farm produces is needed. Further, it is anticipated that the findings of the study will add to the knowledge of policy makers on improving the socio-economic livelihoods of the Ogiek households in general. Keywords: Coping Strategies, Land Resettlement, Livelihoods, Ogie

Defining childhood severe falciparum malaria for intervention studies.

Background Clinical trials of interventions designed to prevent severe falciparum malaria in children require a clear endpoint. The internationally accepted definition of severe malaria is sensitive, and appropriate for clinical purposes. However, this definition includes individuals with severe nonmalarial disease and coincident parasitaemia, so may lack specificity in vaccine trials. Although there is no “gold standard” individual test for severe malaria, malaria-attributable fractions (MAFs) can be estimated among groups of children using a logistic model, which we use to test the suitability of various case definitions as trial endpoints. Methods and Findings A total of 4,583 blood samples were taken from well children in cross-sectional surveys and from 1,361 children admitted to a Kenyan District hospital with severe disease. Among children under 2 y old with severe disease and over 2,500 parasites per microliter of blood, the MAFs were above 85% in moderate- and low-transmission areas, but only 61% in a high-transmission area. HIV and malnutrition were not associated with reduced MAFs, but gastroenteritis with severe dehydration (defined by reduced skin turgor), lower respiratory tract infection (clinician's final diagnosis), meningitis (on cerebrospinal fluid [CSF] examination), and bacteraemia were associated with reduced MAFs. The overall MAF was 85% (95% confidence interval [CI] 83.8%–86.1%) without excluding these conditions, 89% (95% CI 88.4%–90.2%) after exclusions, and 95% (95% CI 94.0%–95.5%) when a threshold of 2,500 parasites/μl was also applied. Applying a threshold and exclusion criteria reduced sensitivity to 80% (95% CI 77%–83%). Conclusions The specificity of a case definition for severe malaria is improved by applying a parasite density threshold and by excluding children with meningitis, lower respiratory tract infection (clinician's diagnosis), bacteraemia, and gastroenteritis with severe dehydration, but not by excluding children with HIV or malnutrition

Towards a national policy on wastewater reuse in Kenya

Kenya is a water-scarce country with the capital city, Nairobi, receiving less than 100 l/capita/day. Potable water for irrigation and industrial use is generally unavailable, and this calls for alternative water sources. Despite use of wastewater being illegal in Kenya, it is used to irrigate over 720 ha in Nairobi. In order to justify the formulation of a national policy to support wastewater reuse, secondary data which included the authors’ previous  work was reviewed. In a study done between 2006 and 2007, the levels of nitrates (100 mg/l) and TDS (630 mg/l) in the wastewater were found to be within the acceptable NEMA standards. The concentration of lead was 0.1 mg/lwhile cadmium and chromium were non-detectable. However, levels of BOD and Coliform bacteria were higher than NEMA limits. This implied that Nairobi sewage needed to be treated for the removal of BOD, turbidity and microbial contamination. In order to allow for safe use of wastewater in Kenya, there is need to formulate a national wastewater reuse policy which provides guidelines for maximum allowable levels of pesticides, herbicides, and heavy metals in wastewater reuse. Such a policy should also indicate the required water quality monitoring frequency for faecal indicators (Escherichia coli, faecal coliforms, enterococci), and suggest the maximumallowable concentration of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) which may are usually abundant in wastewater

The incidence and risk factors for intra-operative hypothermia among paediatric patients undergoing general anaesthesia at the Kenyatta National Hospital

Objective: To determine the incidence and risk factors for intra-operative hypothermia in paediatric patients undergoing general anaesthesia at the Kenyatta National Hospital. Design: A prospective observational study.Setting: The Kenyatta National Hospital main operating theatres and affiliated satellite operating theatres.Subjects: A total of 100 paediatric patients (range; three days to 12 years, mean; 4.1 ± 3.3 years) were enrolled in the study.Results: Thirty out of 100 patients developed hypothermia defined as a core temperature <36ºC recorded at least once during provision of general anaesthesia. Ninety percent of those developing hypothermia were male compared to 63% who remained normothermic (p = 0.006). Proportionally, more than twice as many hypothermic patients had a caudal block (43% versus 20%, p = 0.016) and received 121ml more of fluid (p = 0.002) compared to the normothermic group. The patients who became hypothermic tended to be colder at induction of anaesthesia (36.6 ± 0.5ºC versus 37.0 ± 0.5ºC, p = <0.0001) but there was no significant difference in the waiting time, time of  induction, environmental temperatures or theatre temperatures compared to those not developing hypothermia. There was no significant difference in the BMI between the two groups (14.0 ± 2.9 kg/ m2 versus 15.2 ± 3.5 kg/m2, p = 0.101).Conclusion: The incidence of intra-operative core hypothermia in paediatric patients undergoing general anaesthesia at the Kenyatta National Hospital is 30%. Gender (male), lower body temperature at induction, use of caudal block and the volume of intravenous fluids infused were significant independent predictors of core hypothermia. The most significant predictor was body temperature at the time of induction of general anaesthesia

Integrating ICT with education: using computer games to enhance learning mathematics at undergraduate level

Integration of ICT in the education sector is a desired trend globally. Where it has been adopted, it contributes significantly to increased access to education for all (EFA). This research seeks to look into ways in which computer games as ICT tools can be used to enhance and promote quality teaching and learning; particularly in creating and sustaining interest in the teaching and learning of Functions, a topic taught in mathematics coursessuch as Discrete Mathematics, Real Analysis and Calculus, among others. At Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT) in Kenya, the topic is introduced to students of Mathematics and those of Computer Science in first year Discrete Mathematics. A computer game was developed using Full Professional Adobe Acrobat 9 Pro. The game isdesigned in five levels in line with the progression of functions subject content. A minimum score of 60% for each level was built in the game to ensure the player has a good grip of the content for a certain level before moving on to the next level, thus contributing to guided revision of the level with fun. After game development, it was availed to ten first year Bachelor of Science in Mathematics students taking discreet Mathematics course at the Taita Taveta Campus of JKUAT. The students were in their second semester academic year 2009/2010. Analysis of end of the  semester examinations results show that students who played the game had better performance than their counterparts who had not. Recommendations for further work as advancement of this research is development of a more advanced game in terms of adaptation of the game for use in teaching and learning other Mathematics topics considered to be boring, or difficulty or both and ultimately for purposes of promoting universal quality of university teaching.&nbsp

The canopy effects of Prosopis juliflora (DC) and Acacia tortilis (Hayne) trees on herbaceous plants species and soil physico-chemical properties in Njemps Flats, Kenya

The canopy effects of an exotic and indigenous tree species on soil properties and understorey herbaceous plant species were investigated on the Njemps Flats, Baringo district, Kenya. Samples of soil and herbaceous plant species were obtained within the canopies of systematically selected P. juliflora (exotic) and A. tortilis (indigenous) trees, and from adjacent open areas. Standing biomass, frequency and cover of understorey plant species were significantly (P<0.05) higher in the open area than under the canopies. Cover for herbaceous plant species was 63% under P. juliflora, 82% under A. tortilis and 90% in open areas. All forbs occurred under the canopies indicating that they are more adapted to the shaded micro environments than grasses. Soils under the tree canopies had significantly (P<0.05) higher organic carbon and total nitrogen than those in adjacent open areas. Soils under A. tortilis had significantly (P<0.05) higher organic carbon and total nitrogen than soils from under P. juliflora. The results suggested that A. tortilis trees are more beneficial to soil physical and chemical properties than P. juliflora. Accordingly, the common practice of clearing woody trees indiscriminately to improve grassland for livestock production or for crop cultivation should not be recommended