Shared and Distinct Functions of the Transcription Factors IRF4 and IRF8 in Myeloid Cell Development

Interferon regulatory factor (IRF) 8 and IRF4 are structurally-related, hematopoietic cell-specific transcription factors that cooperatively regulate the differentiation of dendritic cells and B cells. Whilst in myeloid cells IRF8 is known to modulate growth and differentiation, the role of IRF4 is poorly understood. In this study, we show that IRF4 has activities similar to IRF8 in regulating myeloid cell development. The ectopic expression of IRF4 in myeloid progenitor cells in vitro inhibits cell growth, promotes macrophages, but hinders granulocytic cell differentiation. We also show that IRF4 binds to and activates transcription through the IRF-Ets composite sequence (IECS). Furthermore, we demonstrate that Irf8-/-Irf4-/- mice exhibit a more severe chronic myeloid leukemia (CML)-like disease than Irf8-/- mice, involving a disproportionate expansion of granulocytes at the expense of monocytes/macrophages. Irf4-/- mice, however, display no obvious abnormality in myeloid cell development, presumably because IRF4 is expressed at a much lower level than IRF8 in granulocyte-macrophage progenitors. Our results also suggest that IRF8 and IRF4 have not only common but also specific activities in myeloid cells. Since the expression of both the IRF8 and IRF4 genes is downregulated in CML patients, these results may add to our understanding of CML pathogenesis

The human papillomavirus E6 protein targets apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) for degradation

Oncoprotein E6 of high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) plays a critical role in inducing cell immortalization and malignancy. E6 downregulates caspase-dependent pathway through the degradation of p53. However, the effect of HPV E6 on other pathways is still under investigation. In the present study, we found that HPV E6 directly binds to all three forms (precursor, mature, and apoptotic) of apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) and co-localizes with apoptotic AIF. This binding induced MG132-sensitive reduction of AIF expression in the presence of E6 derived from HPV16 (16E6), a cancer-causing type of HPV. Conversely, E6 derived from a non-cancer-causing type of HPV, HPV6 (6E6), did not reduce the levels of AIF despite its interaction with AIF. Flow cytometric analysis revealed that 16E6, but not 6E6, suppressed apoptotic AIF-induced chromatin degradation (an indicator of caspase-independent apoptosis) and staurosporine (STS, a protein kinase inhibitor)-induced apoptosis. AIF knockdown reduced STS-induced apoptosis in both of 16E6-expressing and 6E6-expressing cells; however, the reduction in 16E6-expressing cells was lower than that in 6E6-expressing cells. These findings indicate that 16E6, but not 6E6, blocks AIF-mediated apoptosis, and that AIF may represent a novel therapeutic target for HPV-induced cervical cancer

Induction of Robust Immune Responses against Human Immunodeficiency Virus Is Supported by the Inherent Tropism of Adeno-Associated Virus Type 5 for Dendritic Cells

The ability of adeno-associated virus serotype 1 to 8 (AAV1 to AAV8) vectors expressing the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) Env gp160 (AAV-HIV) to induce an immune response was evaluated in BALB/c mice. The AAV5 vector showed a higher tropism for both mouse and human dendritic cells (DCs) than did the AAV2 vector, whereas other AAV serotype vectors transduced DCs only poorly. AAV1, AAV5, AAV7, and AAV8 were more highly expressed in muscle cells than AAV2. An immunogenicity study of AAV serotypes indicates that AAV1, AAV5, AAV7, and AAV8 vectors expressing the Env gp160 gene induced higher HIV-specific humoral and cell-mediated immune responses than the AAV2 vector did, with the AAV5 vector producing the best responses. Furthermore, mice injected with DCs that had been transduced ex vivo with an AAV5 vector expressing the gp160 gene elicited higher HIV-specific cell-mediated immune responses than did DCs transduced with AAV1 and AAV2 vectors. We also found that AAV vectors produced by HEK293 cells and insect cells elicit similar levels of antigen-specific immune responses. These results demonstrate that the immunogenicity of AAV vectors depends on their tropism for both antigen-presenting cells (such as DCs) and non-antigen-presenting cells (such as muscular cells) and that AAV5 is a better vector than other AAV serotypes. These results may aid in the development of AAV-based vaccine and gene therapy

<i>Irf4</i> and <i>Irf8</i> transcript levels in myeloid and other hematopoietic cells.

<p>Expression levels of endogenous <i>Irf4</i> and <i>Irf8</i> mRNAs in common myeloid progenitors (CMPs), granulocyte/macrophage progenitors (GMPs), macrophages (MΦ), granulocytes (Gr), T cells, B cells, pDCs, and cDCs. Two to 10 mice were used to obtain RNA from each cell type. The pooled RNAs were analyzed in triplicate by qRT-PCR (mean ± standard deviation) using the standard curve method. Cells from WT mice (A) or mutant mice (B) were analyzed. *<i>P</i><0.01 (Student's <i>t</i>-test).</p

IRF4 drives the differentiation of myeloid progenitors towards macrophages.

<p>(A) Wright-Giemsa stain of Tot2 cells transduced with empty MSCV-puro, MSCV-IRF4FLAG-puro or MSCV-IRF8FLAG-puro (original magnification, x 600). (B) Surface marker analysis. Cells on day 6 were stained with the indicated antibodies or isotype control antibodies and analyzed by flow cytometry. Note that differentiated macrophages have higher autofluorescence than undifferentiated cells. (C) Phagocytic activity. Cells on day 6 were incubated with fluorescein-labeled <i>E. coli</i> bioparticles at 37°C or 4°C for 2 h and analyzed by flow cytometry. (D) Immunoblotting analysis of FLAG-tagged IRFs. β-tubulin expression is shown as a loading control.</p

Specific activities of IRF4 and IRF8 in macrophages.

<p>(A) Genes specifically induced by IRF4 or IRF8. Tot2 cells transduced with empty MSCV-puro, MSCV-IRF4FLAG-puro or MSCV-IRF8FLAG-puro were analyzed by qRT-PCR on day 3 (mean ± standard deviation). Data are representative of two independent experiments with similar results. (B) Distinct patterns of cytokine gene induction in IRF4- and IRF8-transduced macrophages. Cells transduced with MSCVs were stimulated on day 5 with 1 µg/ml LPS or 1 µg/ml CpG-B for 5 h, and analyzed by qRT-PCR using the ΔΔCT method (mean ± standard deviation). Two repeat experiments gave similar results. *<i>P</i><0.01 (Student's <i>t</i>-test).</p

IRF4 targets the IECS.

<p>(A) Reporter assays of transcription through the IECS. Tot2 cells were transduced with SIRV-IECS-Ld40-GFP or SIRV-mIECS-Ld40-GFP and then with empty MSCV-CD8t, MSCV-IRF4-CD8t, or MSCV-IRF8-CD8t. The promoter activities in CD8⁺ cells were analyzed on day 2 after the transduction of MSCVs. The activity is shown as mean fluorescent intensity (MFI) of GFP signals (mean ± standard deviation of three independent experiments). *<i>P</i><0.01 (Student's <i>t</i>-test). (B, C) ChIP assays for binding to the IECS (B) or a gene promoter containing an IECS (C). Cells transduced with SIRVs and MSCVs were analyzed by ChIP assays on day 3 after the transduction of MSCVs. Chromatin was precipitated by anti-IRF4 antibody, anti-IRF8 antibody, or normal goat IgG. Precipitated DNA was analyzed by qPCR in triplicate using primers that amplified the IECS sequence in SIRVs or those that amplified the IECS region of the <i>Cst3</i> gene promoter (mean ± standard deviation). Data are representative of three independent experiments. *<i>P</i><0.01 (Student's <i>t</i>-test).</p

IRF4 induces macrophage-related genes and growth arrest during macrophage differentiation.

<p>(A) Induction of macrophage-related genes. Transcript levels in MSCV-transduced cells on day 5 were analyzed by qRT-PCR in triplicate. Data were analyzed using the ΔΔCT method and normalized by the <i>Gapdh</i> levels and shown as values relative to those in empty vector-transduced cells (mean ± standard deviation; representative of three independent experiments with similar results). *<i>P</i><0.01 (Student's <i>t</i>-test). (B) Total viable cell yields (left panel) and cell cycle profiles (on day 4, right panel) after the transduction of MSCVs. Data are expressed as mean ± standard deviation of three independent experiments. *<i>P</i><0.01 (Student's <i>t</i>-test).</p

A CML-like disease in mice deficient for <i>Irf8</i> and <i>Irf4</i>.

<p>(A) Spleens (left panel) and spleen weight of WT, <i>Irf8</i>^-/-, <i>Irf4</i>^-/-, and DKO mice. Values are mean ± standard deviation from measurements of 5 to 6 spleens of each genotype. *<i>P</i><0.01 (Student's <i>t</i>-test). (B) Flow cytometric analysis of granulocytes (CD11b⁺ Gr1⁺) and macrophages (F4/80⁺) in bone marrow cells (upper panels) and splenocytes (lower panels). Numbers indicate the percentages of granulocytes and macrophages. Data are representative of three independent experiments with similar results. (C) The absolute numbers of granulocytes and macrophages per femur (upper part) or spleen (lower part). The ratios of granulocytes to macrophages are shown in the right panels. Values are mean ± standard deviation from 3 to 5 mice of each genotype. *<i>P</i><0.01 and **<i>P</i><0.05 (Student's <i>t</i>-test).</p