Lithium-ion batteries towards circular economy: A literature review of opportunities and issues of recycling treatments

Nowadays, Lithium-ion batteries are widely used in advanced technological devices and Electric and Hybrid Vehicles, due to their high energy density for weight, reduced memory effect and significant number of supported charging/discharging cycles. As a consequence, the production and the use of Lithium-ion batteries will continuously increase in the near future, focusing the global attention on their End-of-Life management. Unfortunately, wasted Lithium-ion batteries treatments are still under development, far from the optimization of recycling processes and technologies, and currently recycling represents the only alternative for the social, economic and environmental sustainability of this market, able to minimize toxicity of End-of-Life products, to create a monetary gain and to lead to the independence from foreign resources or critical materials. This paper analyses the current alternatives for the recycling of Lithium-ion batteries, specifically focusing on available procedures for batteries securing and discharging, mechanical pre-treatments and materials recovery processes (i.e. pyro- and hydrometallurgical), and it highlights the pros and cons of treatments in terms of energy consumption, recovery efficiency and safety issues. Target metals (e.g. Cobalt, Nickel and Lithium) are listed and prioritized, and the economic advantage deriving by the material recovery is outlined. An in-depth literature review was conducted, analysing the existing industrial processes, to show the on-going technological solutions proposed by research projects and industrial developments, comparing best results and open issues and criticalities

A safety oriented decision support tool for the remanufacturing and recycling of post-use H&EVs lithium-ion batteries

The battery is a key component of electric vehicles. To reach the needed voltage and capacity, single Lithium-Ion cells are assembled into modules, then assembled into the pack. Their disassembly, which unlocks both remanufacturing or recycling and which nowadays is made mainly manually, has high electric hazards. Decision tools have not yet been developed to minimize these risks. This work presents a mathematical model to determine the disassembly sequence with the minimal exposure of the operator to hazardous voltages. The model considers the mechanical and electrical architecture of the battery and the tasks needed to reach the desired disassembly level

A novel mechanical pre-treatment process-chain for the recycling of Li-Ion batteries

Li-Ion batteries are strategic components widely adopted in the e-mobility, electronics and building sectors. Although recycling of Li-Ion batteries has recently received increasing attention, the closed-loop recycling, aiming at supplying high quality materials to the battery manufacturing industry, remains a challenge, due to the inherent complexity in meeting target material specifications. This paper proposes a novel Li-Ion battery mechanical pre-treatment for improved selectivity and pre-concentration of the output streams. Machining processes are employed for battery cell case cutting and size-reduction and separation stages are applied on the isolated active winding. The developed process-chain is validated and benchmarked by experimental analysis

METHODS FOR THE DETECTION AND QUANTIFICATION OF NEMATODE PARASITES IN FISH AND FISH PRODUCTS

A molecular method based on real time PCR for the detection of the presence of Anisakis spp. and Pseudoterranova spp. parasites in fish fillets and fish- derived food products, such as babyfood, surimi, fish slices, fish sticks and the like, as well as for performing a relative quantification of nematode larvae content, comprises the steps of: - preparing a first amplicon from the ITS-I region specifically able to identify all species belonging to Anisakis and Pseudoterranova species, and a second amplicon able to amplify DNA from any host DNA, such as fish, and from any organic component or foodstuff, said amplicons being located on redundant genomic regions providing more power to detect a PCR product in degraded samples; - testing the primer pairs in the same real time PCR conditions on reference samples made from various mixtures of Anisakid nematodes and fish; - for fish fillets (not products): quantifying the larval mass in the fish sample by calculation versus a known reference; - for fish fillets and products: calculating the amount of Anisakid DNA versus the amount of total DNA in each sample. A mo lecular method based on real time PCR f or discriminating dif f erent Anis akid species in order to test the geographic provenance of Anisakid-containing f ish, comprises : - aligning the ITS l sequences of dif f erent Anisakid species typical of dif ferent predetermined seas, - designing a real time PCR assay based on detection of sequence variations, - determining whether a fish (and product containing fish) coming from a predetermined sea is contaminated by a given Anisakid species

Sensitive Detection and Quantification of Anisakid Parasite Residues in Food Products

Anisakids are nematodes whose larval stages are often present in fish, molluscs, and crustaceans. Members of the family Anisakidae belonging to the genera Anisakis and Pseudoterranova are implicated in human infections caused by the consumption of raw or undercooked fish. Adequate cooking will kill anisakid larvae, however, killed or inactivated larvae can still cause sensitization and immunoglobulin E-dependent hypersensitivity in human. This work describes the development of DNA-based tests to detect and quantify the presence of Anisakis spp. and Pseudoterranova spp. larvae in fish and fish-derived products, including fish fillets, surimi, fish sticks, canned fish, and baby food. Primers and TaqMan MGB probes recognizing only Anisakis spp. and Pseudoterranova spp. were designed on the first internal transcribed spacer 1 regions of rDNA for a real-time polymerase chain reaction assay. A commercial probe for 18S rDNA was used to detect and quantify the total eukaryotic DNA of the samples. The specificity and sensitivity of the assays were tested using reference samples prepared from mixtures made of Anisakis larvae in different quantity of codfish, and subsequent dilutions. Studies were performed to assess the ability of the test to detect and quantify anisakids in various products. Results showed that this test is able to detect anisakid DNA contained in a proportion of 1:10 5 in 1ng of total DNA. The high prevalence of anisakids reported in main fishery species was confirmed by frequently detecting anisakids DNA in fish muscle and fish-derived products. A partial correlation was found between the number of larvae present in the viscera and the level of contamination of fish fillets. In conclusion, this molecular test is useful to detect the presence of Anisakis spp. and Pseudoterranova spp. in fish and fish-derived products and to quantify the level of contamination along the food chain, with potential applications for fish farms, fish markets, and food producers

Circular Economy and the Fate of Lithium Batteries: Second Life and Recycling

There is a growing demand of electrochemical energy storage, driven by automotive and stationary requirements. Lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs) are expected to dominate the market from the current 0.5 TWh to about 2.5 TWh in 2030. This will lead to great difficulties in the procurement of critical raw materials and in the management of end‐of‐life systems. From a circular economy perspective, it is necessary to identify reuse and recycling strategies that can make the demand fully sustainable. However, second life and recycling are not mutually excluding, while the final fate of the battery, or at least of its noblest components, should be recycling instead of disposal. In this context, to allow new strategies such as direct recycling of cathode powders, an accurate redesign of the battery system, from the single cell to the modules, which allows ease of separation of the compartments, should be considered. The correct evaluation of the best strategies cannot be separated from an accurate and transparent life cycle assessment (LCA), which would take into account both economic and environmental aspects. Herein, the most advanced recycling methods are analyzed and the issues underlying the efficient reuse and recycling of battery packs from electric vehicles are critically discussed