Småskala fiskesamfunns oppfatninger om klimaendringer og innvirkning på levekår, kjønnsroller og adaptiv kapasitet : et kasus fra Lake Malawi

Fisheries remain a major livelihood for many Malawians despite continued low fish catches negatively impacting households, which depend on this resource. The main objective of this thesis is to reduce the current lack of empirical evidence on added impacts of climate related changes and how fishing communities are coping with such changes. Malawi has been experiencing extreme weather events that affect livelihoods. Therefore, in addressing this major objective, four interlinked research studies were conducted in Nkhotakota, a lakeshore district on the western shores of Lake Malawi, which has been experiencing such extreme weather events. These four studies examined aspects of perceptions to changes in fish catches and climate; gendered fish value chain; alternative livelihood sources; and enhancing adaptive capacity through development initiatives. To respond to these aims, the interlinked studies were guided by different theories and conceptual frameworks. The main conceptual framework for this thesis is the sustainable livelihood framework. Other additional concepts and theories including gender and development, vulnerability, and sustainable food systems were also used. The research was conducted in phases between August 2015 and August 2017. The research used mixed methods (qualitative and quantitative) in data collection and analysis. This thesis is framed around 671 household interviews, 40 focus group discussions and 25 key informant interviews. Content analysis for related themes was the major qualitative method, while quantitative methods involved both descriptive and inferential statistics. The main findings from the four interlinked studies are presented in the following sections. In the first paper, perceptions of small scale fishers and their coping strategies for extreme weather events were evaluated. The results revealed increased incidences of extreme weather events. However, the analysis of climate variables such as temperature and precipitation did not reveal significant changes. This study cautions against relying on perceptions despite local knowledge is useful in the absence of conventional scientific knowledge. The study also showed multiple livelihoods diversification strategies in response to perceived low fish catches. However, some of these coping strategies were not sustainable for the fishery. In the second study, gender analysis was used to evaluate whether perceived changes in climate impacts the fish value chain and livelihoods. The results showed that coping strategies for perceived changes was gendered. Furthermore, more women were involved in post harvesting fisheries activities compared to men, who were catching the fish. The study also revealed an influx of women in fisheries was attributed to high purchasing power of fishing equipment and not on perceived changes in climate. However, women were employing men to catch fish on their behalf. Despite the increased participation of women, they still lacked power to control the proceeds from fisheries related incomes. Furthermore, this study showed changes in livelihood portfolios from agriculture to fisheries. The third study we evaluated the importance of fish farming as a sustainable livelihood coping strategy. The study showed that the respondents did not consider fish farming as their major livelihood source attributed to small fish earthen ponds. Fish farming was also androcentric despite women being custodians of the farming land. Even though land and water were available to expand fish farming, farmers cited lack of quality inputs and extension services as major challenges. Furthermore, there were conflicts related to water usage with rice farmers and recycling of residues from farm animals and plants to fertilize fishponds, as farmers opted to use the same in agricultural fields. Finally, in the fourth study, we assessed development initiatives, livelihood assets and adaptive capacity among the fishing communities. Participants for the groups of development initiatives were characterised by low incomes from fisheries and remittances; small land holding sizes and had lived in the study area more than non-participants. Even though the study showed the impact of some initiatives in enhancing adaptive capacity, some selection bias existed. The study also revealed high-income inequalities for both beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries. The paper also showed the potential for development initiatives especially infrastructure in reducing vulnerability and income inequalities even though their focus were not climate change oriented. The findings from this thesis provide a basis for forming and implementing evidence-based policies in countries whose people rely on climate-sensitive livelihoods. For instance, these findings can be used to inform the Malawi National Fisheries and Aquaculture Policy as well as the participatory fisheries management framework that lacks strategies to deal with climate-related changes and other important socioeconomic factors such as gender. Additionally, other service providers in rural areas can frame their strategies based on the findings of this thesis.Fiske er fortsatt en viktig levevei i Malawi, til tross for at dårlige fangster har en negativ påvirkning på husholdningene, som er avhengige av denne ressursen. Hovedmålet for denne avhandlingen er å redusere dagens mangel på empiriske bevis for virkningene som følger av klimarelaterte endringer, og hvordan fiskerisamfunnene takler disse endringene. Malawi har opplevd ekstremværhendelser som påvirker levekårene. Under arbeidet med dette hovedmålet ble det derfor utført fire innbyrdes relaterte forskningsstudier i Nkhotakota, et distrikt på den vestlige bredden av Malawisjøen, som har opplevd slike ekstremværhendelser. Disse fire studiene undersøkte aspekter ved oppfatningene av endringer i fiskefangst og klima; verdikjeden for fisk med hensyn til kjønn; alternative kilder til levebrød; og å styrke kapasiteten for tilpasning til klimaendringer gjennom utviklingstiltak.Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs funding to the Government of Malawi on the Capacity Building for Managing Climate Change Program in Malawi (CABMACC) (Grant number MWI—2011-11/0007)

A gendered perspective on fish value chain, livelihoods patterns and coping strategies under climate change - insights from Malawi small-scale fisheries

publishedVersio

Småskala fiskesamfunns oppfatninger om klimaendringer og innvirkning på levekår, kjønnsroller og adaptiv kapasitet : et kasus fra Lake Malawi

Fisheries remain a major livelihood for many Malawians despite continued low fish catches negatively impacting households, which depend on this resource. The main objective of this thesis is to reduce the current lack of empirical evidence on added impacts of climate related changes and how fishing communities are coping with such changes. Malawi has been experiencing extreme weather events that affect livelihoods. Therefore, in addressing this major objective, four interlinked research studies were conducted in Nkhotakota, a lakeshore district on the western shores of Lake Malawi, which has been experiencing such extreme weather events. These four studies examined aspects of perceptions to changes in fish catches and climate; gendered fish value chain; alternative livelihood sources; and enhancing adaptive capacity through development initiatives. To respond to these aims, the interlinked studies were guided by different theories and conceptual frameworks. The main conceptual framework for this thesis is the sustainable livelihood framework. Other additional concepts and theories including gender and development, vulnerability, and sustainable food systems were also used. The research was conducted in phases between August 2015 and August 2017. The research used mixed methods (qualitative and quantitative) in data collection and analysis. This thesis is framed around 671 household interviews, 40 focus group discussions and 25 key informant interviews. Content analysis for related themes was the major qualitative method, while quantitative methods involved both descriptive and inferential statistics. The main findings from the four interlinked studies are presented in the following sections. In the first paper, perceptions of small scale fishers and their coping strategies for extreme weather events were evaluated. The results revealed increased incidences of extreme weather events. However, the analysis of climate variables such as temperature and precipitation did not reveal significant changes. This study cautions against relying on perceptions despite local knowledge is useful in the absence of conventional scientific knowledge. The study also showed multiple livelihoods diversification strategies in response to perceived low fish catches. However, some of these coping strategies were not sustainable for the fishery. In the second study, gender analysis was used to evaluate whether perceived changes in climate impacts the fish value chain and livelihoods. The results showed that coping strategies for perceived changes was gendered. Furthermore, more women were involved in post harvesting fisheries activities compared to men, who were catching the fish. The study also revealed an influx of women in fisheries was attributed to high purchasing power of fishing equipment and not on perceived changes in climate. However, women were employing men to catch fish on their behalf. Despite the increased participation of women, they still lacked power to control the proceeds from fisheries related incomes. Furthermore, this study showed changes in livelihood portfolios from agriculture to fisheries. The third study we evaluated the importance of fish farming as a sustainable livelihood coping strategy. The study showed that the respondents did not consider fish farming as their major livelihood source attributed to small fish earthen ponds. Fish farming was also androcentric despite women being custodians of the farming land. Even though land and water were available to expand fish farming, farmers cited lack of quality inputs and extension services as major challenges. Furthermore, there were conflicts related to water usage with rice farmers and recycling of residues from farm animals and plants to fertilize fishponds, as farmers opted to use the same in agricultural fields. Finally, in the fourth study, we assessed development initiatives, livelihood assets and adaptive capacity among the fishing communities. Participants for the groups of development initiatives were characterised by low incomes from fisheries and remittances; small land holding sizes and had lived in the study area more than non-participants. Even though the study showed the impact of some initiatives in enhancing adaptive capacity, some selection bias existed. The study also revealed high-income inequalities for both beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries. The paper also showed the potential for development initiatives especially infrastructure in reducing vulnerability and income inequalities even though their focus were not climate change oriented. The findings from this thesis provide a basis for forming and implementing evidence-based policies in countries whose people rely on climate-sensitive livelihoods. For instance, these findings can be used to inform the Malawi National Fisheries and Aquaculture Policy as well as the participatory fisheries management framework that lacks strategies to deal with climate-related changes and other important socioeconomic factors such as gender. Additionally, other service providers in rural areas can frame their strategies based on the findings of this thesis.Fiske er fortsatt en viktig levevei i Malawi, til tross for at dårlige fangster har en negativ påvirkning på husholdningene, som er avhengige av denne ressursen. Hovedmålet for denne avhandlingen er å redusere dagens mangel på empiriske bevis for virkningene som følger av klimarelaterte endringer, og hvordan fiskerisamfunnene takler disse endringene. Malawi har opplevd ekstremværhendelser som påvirker levekårene. Under arbeidet med dette hovedmålet ble det derfor utført fire innbyrdes relaterte forskningsstudier i Nkhotakota, et distrikt på den vestlige bredden av Malawisjøen, som har opplevd slike ekstremværhendelser. Disse fire studiene undersøkte aspekter ved oppfatningene av endringer i fiskefangst og klima; verdikjeden for fisk med hensyn til kjønn; alternative kilder til levebrød; og å styrke kapasiteten for tilpasning til klimaendringer gjennom utviklingstiltak.Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs funding to the Government of Malawi on the Capacity Building for Managing Climate Change Program in Malawi (CABMACC) (Grant number MWI—2011-11/0007)

Small scale fishing communities’ perceptions of climate change and its impact on livelihoods, gender roles and adaptive capacity : a case of Lake Malawi

Fisheries remain a major livelihood for many Malawians despite continued low fish catches negatively impacting households, which depend on this resource. The main objective of this thesis is to reduce the current lack of empirical evidence on added impacts of climate related changes and how fishing communities are coping with such changes. Malawi has been experiencing extreme weather events that affect livelihoods. Therefore, in addressing this major objective, four interlinked research studies were conducted in Nkhotakota, a lakeshore district on the western shores of Lake Malawi, which has been experiencing such extreme weather events. These four studies examined aspects of perceptions to changes in fish catches and climate; gendered fish value chain; alternative livelihood sources; and enhancing adaptive capacity through development initiatives. To respond to these aims, the interlinked studies were guided by different theories and conceptual frameworks. The main conceptual framework for this thesis is the sustainable livelihood framework. Other additional concepts and theories including gender and development, vulnerability, and sustainable food systems were also used. The research was conducted in phases between August 2015 and August 2017. The research used mixed methods (qualitative and quantitative) in data collection and analysis. This thesis is framed around 671 household interviews, 40 focus group discussions and 25 key informant interviews. Content analysis for related themes was the major qualitative method, while quantitative methods involved both descriptive and inferential statistics. The main findings from the four interlinked studies are presented in the following sections. In the first paper, perceptions of small scale fishers and their coping strategies for extreme weather events were evaluated. The results revealed increased incidences of extreme weather events. However, the analysis of climate variables such as temperature and precipitation did not reveal significant changes. This study cautions against relying on perceptions despite local knowledge is useful in the absence of conventional scientific knowledge. The study also showed multiple livelihoods diversification strategies in response to perceived low fish catches. However, some of these coping strategies were not sustainable for the fishery. In the second study, gender analysis was used to evaluate whether perceived changes in climate impacts the fish value chain and livelihoods. The results showed that coping strategies for perceived changes was gendered. Furthermore, more women were involved in post harvesting fisheries activities compared to men, who were catching the fish. The study also revealed an influx of women in fisheries was attributed to high purchasing power of fishing equipment and not on perceived changes in climate. However, women were employing men to catch fish on their behalf. Despite the increased participation of women, they still lacked power to control the proceeds from fisheries related incomes. Furthermore, this study showed changes in livelihood portfolios from agriculture to fisheries. The third study we evaluated the importance of fish farming as a sustainable livelihood coping strategy. The study showed that the respondents did not consider fish farming as their major livelihood source attributed to small fish earthen ponds. Fish farming was also androcentric despite women being custodians of the farming land. Even though land and water were available to expand fish farming, farmers cited lack of quality inputs and extension services as major challenges. Furthermore, there were conflicts related to water usage with rice farmers and recycling of residues from farm animals and plants to fertilize fishponds, as farmers opted to use the same in agricultural fields. Finally, in the fourth study, we assessed development initiatives, livelihood assets and adaptive capacity among the fishing communities. Participants for the groups of development initiatives were characterised by low incomes from fisheries and remittances; small land holding sizes and had lived in the study area more than non-participants. Even though the study showed the impact of some initiatives in enhancing adaptive capacity, some selection bias existed. The study also revealed high-income inequalities for both beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries. The paper also showed the potential for development initiatives especially infrastructure in reducing vulnerability and income inequalities even though their focus were not climate change oriented. The findings from this thesis provide a basis for forming and implementing evidence-based policies in countries whose people rely on climate-sensitive livelihoods. For instance, these findings can be used to inform the Malawi National Fisheries and Aquaculture Policy as well as the participatory fisheries management framework that lacks strategies to deal with climate-related changes and other important socioeconomic factors such as gender. Additionally, other service providers in rural areas can frame their strategies based on the findings of this thesis

Is Fish Farming an Illusion for Lake Malawi Riparian Communities under Environmental Changes?

Global environmental changes have negatively affected many food systems while the demand for food has continued to rise. An urgent need exists to identify other sustainable means of producing food. This is a case in Malawi, where capture fisheries and agriculture are not supplying sufficient food. Fish farming food systems by communities who rely on inland fisheries have not been evaluated. Therefore, a study was conducted in two phases: January 2016 to May 2016 and in July 2017 to evaluate if fish farming could sustainably support livelihoods of Lake Malawi riparian communities. We used mixed methods to collect and analyze data. The data collection methods included explorative surveys, household survey interviews, focus group discussion and key informant interviews. Qualitative data was analyzed using content analysis for themes. This identified themes that were quantitatively analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. We observed that fish farming was dominated by men and also not the main occupation for the respondents despite owning fishponds. The respondents have water and land, which are prerequisite for any farming. The study also observed fish farming production challenges related to quality fingerlings, formulated diets, and extension services. Cases of food insecurity amongst the respondents were also prevalent due to lack of food to cover the entire year. Weak synergies existed between fish farming and agriculture restricting bio-resource flow and water usage between these two food systems, meaning the outcomes of the food systems provide unsustainable diets. Furthermore, water availability, money spent on food, and cassava cropping increased fish farming participation. Whereas operating a bicycle taxi, casual labor, former fish farming, as well as application of agricultural wastes negatively affected fish farming. On the other hand, extreme weather events (increased incidences of droughts and floods) attributed to inter annual rainfall variation also negatively affected fish farming. The responses from Lake Malawi riparian communities indicate that they merely look upon fish farming as an alternative to capture fisheries than as an illusion. Nonetheless, the research provides a theoretical platform to explore the potential to develop sustainable fish farming food system adapted to such changes. Therefore, we have brought new evidence that progress of fish farming in Malawi is being made, but there is a long way to go before it can be considered successful and sustainable.Is Fish Farming an Illusion for Lake Malawi Riparian Communities under Environmental Changes?publishedVersio

Evaluation of Small-Scale Fishers’ Perceptions on Climate Change and Their Coping Strategies: Insights from Lake Malawi

publishedVersio

Are Chilimira Fishers of <i>Engraulicypris sardella</i> (<i>Günther</i>, 1868) in Lake Malawi Productive? The Case of Nkhotakota District

An ecological shift has populated Engraulicypris sardella as a livelihood and economic drive among fishers in Malawi. However, the paucity of biological information regarding E. sardella limits the effective monitoring and sustainable management of the fishery. This has created a heavily invested fishery in terms of the effort put into fishing, but it is poorly managed. Moreover, the current production capacity from the fishery has a negligible impact on lessening the shortfall of the national fish demand, indicating its underperformance. Therefore, the productive efficiency of Lake Malawi Chilimira fishers in exploiting E. sardella was analysed. A multi-stage sampling technique was used to sample 355 Chilimira fishers between July and October 2021. Results from the translog stochastic frontier model revealed that Chilimira fishers had an overall mean technical efficiency of 60% that ranged between 21% and 92%. This indicates that Chilimira fishers are 40% technically inefficient in exploiting E. sardella. The fishing inputs of bunt area, light emitting diode (LED) bulbs, and mesh size significantly contributed to technical efficiency, whereas boat size, fishing depth, number of hauls, and mosquito net lining significantly reduced the technical inefficiency. On average, the Chilimira fishery is operating with increasing returns to scale with bunt area, the quantity of fuel (litres), and the number of LED bulbs having positive input–output elasticity. This means that new developments in the fishery, including LED bulbs, increased bunt area, and boat size, are key factors that will improve fishing efficiency for sustainable fishery exploitation. In contrast, illegal fishing units of small bunt mesh size and mosquito net lining at the bunt threaten the sustainability of the fishery. It is, therefore, important that relevant stakeholders put policy measures in place that promote sustainable fishing effort approaches in exploiting the virgin offshore fishery to maximise catch