The origins and spread of domestic horses from the Western Eurasian steppes

Analysis of 273 ancient horse genomes reveals that modern domestic horses originated in the Western Eurasian steppes, especially the lower Volga-Don region.Domestication of horses fundamentally transformed long-range mobility and warfare(1). However, modern domesticated breeds do not descend from the earliest domestic horse lineage associated with archaeological evidence of bridling, milking and corralling(2-4) at Botai, Central Asia around 3500 bc(3). Other longstanding candidate regions for horse domestication, such as Iberia(5) and Anatolia(6), have also recently been challenged. Thus, the genetic, geographic and temporal origins of modern domestic horses have remained unknown. Here we pinpoint the Western Eurasian steppes, especially the lower Volga-Don region, as the homeland of modern domestic horses. Furthermore, we map the population changes accompanying domestication from 273 ancient horse genomes. This reveals that modern domestic horses ultimately replaced almost all other local populations as they expanded rapidly across Eurasia from about 2000 bc, synchronously with equestrian material culture, including Sintashta spoke-wheeled chariots. We find that equestrianism involved strong selection for critical locomotor and behavioural adaptations at the GSDMC and ZFPM1 genes. Our results reject the commonly held association(7) between horseback riding and the massive expansion of Yamnaya steppe pastoralists into Europe around 3000 bc(8,9) driving the spread of Indo-European languages(10). This contrasts with the scenario in Asia where Indo-Iranian languages, chariots and horses spread together, following the early second millennium bc Sintashta culture(11,12).Descriptive and Comparative Linguistic

The origins and spread of domestic horses from the Western Eurasian steppes

Domestication of horses fundamentally transformed long-range mobility and warfare. However, modern domesticated breeds do not descend from the earliest domestic horse lineage associated with archaeological evidence of bridling, milking and corralling at Botai, Central Asia around 3500 bc. Other longstanding candidate regions for horse domestication, such as Iberia and Anatolia, have also recently been challenged. Thus, the genetic, geographic and temporal origins of modern domestic horses have remained unknown. Here we pinpoint the Western Eurasian steppes, especially the lower Volga-Don region, as the homeland of modern domestic horses. Furthermore, we map the population changes accompanying domestication from 273 ancient horse genomes. This reveals that modern domestic horses ultimately replaced almost all other local populations as they expanded rapidly across Eurasia from about 2000 bc, synchronously with equestrian material culture, including Sintashta spoke-wheeled chariots. We find that equestrianism involved strong selection for critical locomotor and behavioural adaptations at the GSDMC and ZFPM1 genes. Our results reject the commonly held association between horseback riding and the massive expansion of Yamnaya steppe pastoralists into Europe around 3000 bc driving the spread of Indo-European languages. This contrasts with the scenario in Asia where Indo-Iranian languages, chariots and horses spread together, following the early second millennium bc Sintashta culture

On the status and selectivity of the infant burials of the Yamnaya Archaeological Culture of the Southern Urals (based on the excavation materials of the burial mound No. 1 of the Boldyrevo-4 group)

Bioarchaeology is an important field of interdisciplinary research based upon the contextual study of anthropological materials. In particular, bioarchaeology of childhood appears to be the most specialised area of research, addressing quality of life and social patterns of ancient groups. In this paper, we continue the study of the infant remains from the burial mound No. 1 of the Boldyrevo-4 burial ground — one of the elite and largest burial mounds of the Yamnaya (Pit Grave) Culture in the northern part of the Volga-Urals. It was located on the left bank of the Irtek River, a tributary of the Ural, and had a diameter of 62 m and a reconstructed height of 8 m. The earliest horizon was represented by mounds Nos. 1 and 2 with close parameters. They contained one burial each (burials Nos. 3 and 4, respectively), located in the centers of the mound platforms, which belonged to children. Based on the results of our preliminary study, the child from burial No. 3 died of metastatic cancer (the most probable diagnosis is lymphocytic leukaemia). Burial No. 4 contained remains of two children. Child No. 1 from burial No. 4, represented only by the cranium, had possibly suffered from scurvy. Here we publish the results of the analysis of ancient DNA aimed at identifying the sex of the interred, as well as the results of the Sr isotope analysis, which allows determination of their ‘local’ or ‘distant’ origin. The quality of the ancient DNA was evaluated by targeted sequencing carried out using a specially designed panel of probes that allowed the selection of target sections of the genome for subsequent enrichment using the method of hybridisation, followed by the target NGS. The genetic data confirm that all three individuals belonged to the female sex. On the basis of Sr isotope ratios, the girls from burials Nos. 3 and 4 (No. 2) were born in the territories with different geochemical signals. Unfortunately, for the child No. 1 from burial No. 4 such observations could not be obtained. The biological age (around 6 years old), female sex attributes, and the presence of serious health conditions allows one to pose the question on the selective nature of the children burials in this mound of the Yamnaya Culture. Moreover, they could have received a special hereditary social status, which influenced the further erection of the burial mound for members of the elite