Courtship and mating behaviour of the brilliant-thighed frog Allobates femoralis from Central Amazonia: Implications for the study of a species complex

The identification of divergence in reproductive traits may substantially improve integrative approaches to understand species limits within clades that are suspected to contain cryptic diversity. The frog Allobates femoralis has been regarded as a pan-Amazonian species, and widely used as a model for addressing evolutionary issues regarding patterns of intraspecific diversification, social organisation, and animal communication. Recent accumulation of genetic, morphological, and bioacoustic data gathered from different localities strongly supports the idea that it represents a species complex, but field behavioural observations related to courtship and mating are surprisingly scarce. Here, we provide a description of several aspects of the reproductive biology of A. femoralis from a Central Amazon site, and compare our results with the few published reports for the species. This study demonstrated that, besides the known divergence in the number of notes of the A. femoralis call, there are both quantitative and qualitative differences regarding reproductive traits between two populations of this taxon. The most striking difference was the observation of cephalic amplexus in the population from the Reserva Ducke, Brazil, which contrasts with the absence of any kind of body contact between A. femoralis pairs during mating interactions at the Panguana Biological Station, Peru. In addition, we report for the first time a set of visual components of the courtship behaviour, such as throat display, limb lifting, circling, and leg stretching. Behavioural differences can lead to a pre-zygotic isolation, thus representing a first step in the speciation process through differential sexual preferences. Hence, our finding of divergence in a set of traits probably related to mate recognition and choice is surprising within populations assigned to a single clade, and highlights the importance of considering behavioural traits in order to disentangle the evolutionary forces driving the diversification of A. femoralis. © 2011 Dipartimento di Biologia Evoluzionistica dell'Università, Firenze, Italia

FIGURE 2 in A new species of Allobates (Anura: Aromobatidae) from Paleovárzea Forest in Amazonas, Brazil

FIGURE 2. Dorsal (A) and ventral (B) views of holotype of Allobates paleovarzensis in life. Dorsal views of two other males (C and E) and a female (F) showing variation in the dorsal patterns. (D) Ventral views of female (left) and male (right) in life showing the yellowish throat in the female and the violet throat and chest in the male. (Photographs by A.P. Lima)Published as part of Lima, Albertina P., Caldwell, Janalee P, Biavati, Graziela & Montanarin, Anelise, 2010, A new species of Allobates (Anura: Aromobatidae) from Paleovárzea Forest in Amazonas, Brazil, pp. 1-17 in Zootaxa 2337 on page 5, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.19322

Allobates paleovarzensis Lima, Caldwell, Biavati & Montanarin, 2010, sp. nov.

<i>Allobates paleovarzensis,</i> sp. nov. <p>Figures 1 A–1C and 2A–2B</p> <p> <b>Holotype.</b> INPA-H 20904 (original field number APL 12650), adult male, collected on 27 April 2007 by Albertina P. Lima and Natan da Silva Melo, in the municipality of Castanho, near the town of Careiro da Várzea on the southern margin of Rio Amazonas (03°22’26.3’’S; 59°52’06.4’’W), elevation 50 m. The type locality is 34 km S Manaus on Highway BR 319. The specimen was taken from a small remnant of paleovárzea forest along the margin of a small river, the Paraná do Castanho.</p> <p> <b>Paratopotypes.</b> Males, INPA-H 20876–20903 and INPA-H 20905, original field numbers APL 12098, 12100, 12102, 12105, 12106, 12108, 12111–12113, 12625–12629, 12635–12643, 12645–12649, 12651; females, INPA-H 20861–20875, original field numbers APL 12099, 12101, 12103, 12104, 12107, 12109, 12110, 12630–12634, 12644, 12652–12653, all collected by APL, Natan da Silva Melo, and Graziela M. Biavati on 15–16 March 2006, 5–13 March 2006, and 27 April 2007 from the type locality.</p> <p> <b>Etymology.</b> The specific name refers to the paleovárzea habitat in which the species occurs. Paleovárzeas are ancient floodplains of the Amazon River and its tributaries that are no longer subject to seasonal inundation.</p> <p> <b>Diagnosis.</b> The new species was assigned to the genus <i>Allobates</i>, based on the following characteristics. A cryptically colored, medium-sized species, mean SVL of males 20.1, range 18.3 to 22.4 mm; mean SVL of females 19.8, range 18.7 to 21.7 mm. Finger III of male weakly swollen, 0.12 mm wider than Finger III of female (Fig. 3 A). Dorsolateral stripe present in both sexes, less obvious in some individuals; ventrolateral stripe present, narrow, and distinct; oblique lateral stripe only in inguinal area, short, and diffuse (Fig. 1 C and 1F); male with gray to grayish-violet throat with a lighter center; female with yellowish throat (Fig. 2 D). Rudimentary webbing present only basally between Toes III and IV (Fig. 3 B); median lingual process absent; testes white in preservative, extending one-half length of kidney.</p> <p> In addition, one presumed population of the new species was included in a molecular analysis by Grant <i>et al.</i> (2006, Fig. 73, new species = “SãoFrancisco”), which revealed that it is most closely related to an undescribed species of <i>Allobates</i> (“ReservaDucke”) from Reserva Ducke near Manaus, Brazil. The other three species from the same region as the new species are also included in the analysis and are genetically distinct (<i>Allobates caeruleodactylus</i>, Fig. 73; undescribed species “Manaus1,” Fig. 73; and <i>Allobates nidicola</i>, Fig. 72) from the new species.</p> <p> <i>Allobates paleovarzensis</i> is distinguished from <i>A. brunneus</i> (Cope, 1887; Lima <i>et al.</i>, 2009), <i>A. gasconi</i> (Morales, 2002 "2000"), and <i>A. crombiei</i> (Morales, 2002 "2000") by absence of a distinct dark diamondshaped or hourglass pattern on the dorsum. <i>A. paleovarzensis</i> differs from <i>A. olfersioides</i> in lacking an intercrossing "X" pattern on the dorsum. From <i>A. trilineatus</i> (Boulenger, 1883; Grant & Rodriguez 2001), <i>A. conspicuus</i> (Morales, 2002 "2000"), <i>A. fuscellus</i> (Morales, 2002 "2000"), A. <i>sumtuosus</i> (Morales, 2002 "2000"), <i>A. caeruleodactylus</i> (Lima & Caldwell, 2001), <i>A. granti</i> (Kok, <i>et al.</i> 2006), and <i>A. subfolionidificans</i> (Lima <i>et al.</i> 2007), <i>A. paleovarzensis</i> is distinguished by its larger SVL in both males and females (<i>Allobates paleovarzensis</i> is larger than 18.0 mm, whereas maximum SVL of adults of other species is smaller than 18.0 mm). The call of <i>A. paleovarzensis</i> is distinct from that of <i>A. caeruleodactylus</i> (Lima & Caldwell, 2001), <i>A. granti</i> (Kok, <i>et al.</i> 2006), <i>A. subfolionidificans</i> (Lima, <i>et al.</i> 2007), <i>A. marchesianus</i> (Caldwell <i>et al.</i> 2002a and b), and <i>A. nidicola</i> (Caldwell & Lima, 2003). <i>A. paleovarzensis</i> is distinguished from <i>A</i>. <i>masniger</i> by the absence of a dorsolateral stripe (present in <i>A. paleovarzensis</i>) and lack of swollen Finger III (weakly swollen in <i>A. paleovarzensis</i>). <i>A. vanzolinius</i> has a more elongate body form and less robust limbs than <i>A. paleovarzensis</i>.</p> <p> <b>Description of holotype.</b> An adult male, 19.2 mm SVL (for all measurements, see Table 1); body slender; head slightly longer than wide, head width 93% of the head length, head width 28% of SVL; snout blunt, broadly rounded to nearly truncate in dorsal view (Figs. 1 A and 1D) and acutely rounded in lateral view (Figs. 1 C and 2A), extending past lower jaw (Fig. 1 B); snout 53.8% of head length; internarial distance 34% of head width; eye to nostril distance 72% of eye length; laterally placed nostrils slightly protuberant, opening posterolaterally; tympanum round, directed posterolaterally; tympanic membrane inconspicuous, 37.5% of eye length; posterodorsal part of tympanum partially concealed by slip of m. depressor mandibulae; tongue nearly twice as long as wide, attached anteriorly, rounded along posterior margin; median lingual process absent; vocal sac and vocal slits present (Fig. 1 C). Teeth on premaxilla and maxilla imperceptible under light microscope at 50x magnification.</p> <p>Skin granular on dorsal surface, granules weakest on head; skin on dorsal surface of legs granular. Skin on ventral surfaces smooth. Forearm slender, 82% of upper arm; ulnar fold absent; HAND III length in males 19.7% of SVL; Finger I 0.9 mm longer than Finger II when fingers appressed; Finger II similar size to Finger IV; Finger IV extends midway to distal subarticular tubercle of Finger III; Finger III>I>II=IV (Fig. 3 A); basal webbing between fingers absent; palmar tubercle nearly round, 0.45 mm diameter, 12.1% of hand length; thenar tubercle oval, one-third diameter of palmar tubercle (Fig. 3 A); one subarticular tubercle present on Fingers I, II, and IV, two subarticular tubercles present on Finger III (Fig. 3 A); basal subarticular tubercles on Fingers I and II largest, nearly equal in size, basal subarticular tubercle on Finger III smaller than that on Fingers I and II, distal subarticular tubercle on Finger III and subarticular tubercle on finger IV smaller; nearly equal in size. Fingers lack fringes; discs on all fingers expanded; Finger III weakly swollen, width of disc on Finger III 0.70 mm, disc 0.25 mm wider than width of finger (Fig. 3 A).</p> <p>Hindlimb robust; TL 46% of SVL; FL 38.6% of SVL; relative length of toes IV>III>V>II>I; basal webbing present only between Toes III and IV; lateral fringes absent on all toes, Toe I reaching distal edge of subarticular tubercle of Toe II when appressed; discs on Toes I, II, III, and IV larger than width of toes; disc on Toe V slightly larger than toe; disc width of Toe IV 0.60 mm; inner metatarsal tubercle oval; outer metatarsal tubercle round; median metatarsal tubercle absent. Metatarsal fold present, distinct proximally; tarsal fold absent, tarsal keel distinct, short, and elliptic. One subarticular tubercle on Toes I and II; two on Toes III and V; three on Toe IV. Basal subarticular tubercle on Toe IV poorly defined (Fig. 3 B).</p> <p> <b>Variation within type series.</b> No significant difference was found in SVL or most other measurements of 30 males (including the holotype) and 15 females (SVL, t = 0.255, df = 43, P = 0.281). We therefore describe variation of all 45 specimens together regardless of sex unless otherwise noted. HW 26–31% of SVL, SL 41– 55% of HL; IN 31–41% of HW; EN distance 27–37% of HW; tympanic membrane inconspicuous, round, 33– 49% of EL; skin granular on dorsal surface, weaker on head; dorsolateral stripe present in most live specimens, absent or diffuse in preserved specimens; narrow ventrolateral stripe present in preserved and live specimens; oblique lateral stripe present only in inguinal area, diffuse, in some individuals consisting of tiny whitish spots (Figs. 1 F and 2C, 2E, and 2F).</p> <p>Forearm slightly longer than upper arm; HAND III, on average, 21% of SVL; basal webbing between fingers absent in all specimens; palmar tubercle nearly round, average diameter 0.47, 12% of HAND III; subarticular tubercles on fingers similar in size and number to the holotype in all specimens. No fringes on fingers; all discs on fingers expanded; Finger III weakly swollen in all males, width of middle of the third phalange on Finger III in males (mean 0.44 ± 0.05) significantly greater than in females (mean 0.31 ± 0.04 mm; t = 8.2, df = 43, P <0.000).</p> <p>TL 41–49% of SVL. Ratio of FL to SVL in males (mean 0.39 ± 0.03) significantly (t = 3.04, df = 43, P = 0.004) greater than in females (mean 0.37 ± 0.01); FL 46% of SVL in males and 45% in females; basal webbing between Toes III and IV present in all specimens; disc width on Toe IV 0.50; in all specimens inner metatarsal tubercle oval, outer metatarsal tubercle round, median metatarsal tubercle absent; metatarsal fold weak, present in all specimens; tarsal keel distinct, short, and curved. Subarticular tubercles on toes as in holotype.</p> <p> <b>Color of adults in life.</b> Color in life of the holotype is shown in Figures 2 A–B. Background color of dorsum uniform light brown, becoming slightly darker on head. Some specimens have dark brown markings on the head, extending in a few specimens onto the dorsum (Figs. 2 C and 2E). The tan dorsolateral stripe appears more distinct in those specimens with a dark brown dorsum (Fig. 2 E). Tips of the granules on the dorsum are dark brown, contrasting with the lighter brown background in many specimens. Upper surface of arm orange-brown with some irregular light brown blotches. Dorsal surface of leg light brown with darker brown granules. Some individuals have a thin dark brown vertical stripe on the middle of tibia and the foot. Reproductive males have a grayish-violet throat, lighter in center, and upper chest with melanophores dispersed on the vocal sac, whitish belly, and yellow flank and ventral surface of the upper thigh (Fig. 2 B and 2D); adult females have a light yellow throat and chest, and a deeper yellow belly; in females the leg has a yellow wash and lacks melanophores (Fig. 2 D). Both sexes have a continuous narrow white ventrolateral stripe beginning on the upper lip or below the eye and extending to the groin; below the ventrolateral stripe, the side is flesh with evenly scattered white flecking. The base of the thigh has a cream crescent-shaped mark; ventral surface of the hand and foot is brown (Fig. 2 D).</p> <p> <b>Color of adults in preservative.</b> The color in preservative of the holotype is shown in Figures 1 A–1C. The following description of color in preservative was based on 44 specimens. In 23 specimens, the surface of the dorsum is generally uniform dark brown (as in Fig. 4 E–4G). In these specimens, the dorsolateral stripe is distinct and extends from the snout and above the eye to the tip of the urostyle. In 21 specimens, the dorsum is pale brown with scattered darker brown granules. In these specimens, the head is darker than the rest of the body, and the dorsolateral stripe is inconspicuous (similar to the holotype, Fig. 1 A, and a female, Fig. 1 D, and to specimens in Figs. 4 A–4C). The upper surface of the arm is cream with dark brown flecks. The upper surface of the leg is pale brown with a narrow dark brown stripe on the tibia in 27 specimens. In 15 specimens, the foot is pale brown with distinct dark brown blotches; these blotches are diffuse in 29 specimens. The white ventrolateral stripe begins below the eye, extending below the tympanum and above the arm insertion to the groin. The lateral surface below the ventrolateral stripe is cream with scattered light brown flecks. A distinct dark brown lateral band extends from the tip of the snout through the eye to the vent and increases in width from snout to vent. The oblique lateral stripe is present inguinally in the lateral dark brown band, and is short and diffuse, containing small whitish spots in some specimens. The tympanum is dark brown above and white below where it converges with the ventrolateral stripe in all specimens. The ventral coloration, although sexually dimorphic in live individuals, fades in preserved specimens (Fig. 1 B and E). Reproductive females have a cream throat, chest, and belly without melanophores; males have a light to medium gray vocal sac and upper chest (Fig. 5). A crescent-shaped paracloacal mark is present in all specimens (Fig. 4).</p> <p> <b>Description of vocalization</b>. The call of this species consisted of groups of single notes separated by intervals with a mean of 1.8 seconds. The notes within each call were separated by intervals of 0.113 seconds (Fig. 6). The mean number of notes produced per call was 11.5 ± 4.5 and varied from 3 to 21 notes. The mean number of calls per 1 min section was 17.2 and varied from 12 to 24. Twenty-one to thirty-six notes and internote intervals (3 per call) per male were measured per 1 min period. The mean note duration for the 8 males was 0.043 ± 0.007 and varied from 0.025 to 0.060 s. The inter-note intervals within calls of the 8 males had a mean of 0.113 ± 0.030 s and a range of 0.065 to 0.266 s. The duration of calls had a mean of 1.65 ± 0.55 s (range 0.72 to 3.02 s), and calls were separated by intervals of 1.8 ± 0.58 s (range 0.26 to 3.65 s).</p> <p>Considerable variation occurred in the spectral parameters within 1-minute sections of individual calls, but the frequency distribution was normal. We used the mean maximum and minimum values to characterize the maximum, high, and low frequency traits for the 8 males. Because the spectral parameters were correlated [maximum and high (r = 0.82), maximum and low (r = 0.67), low and high (r = 0.63)], we present maximum frequency to illustrate individual variation in detail (Table 2). A sub-sample of 21 to 36 notes emitted during a period of 1 minute was analyzed for each male. For the 8 males combined, the means for low, high, and maximum frequency were 4.13 kHz (range 3.51–4.58 kHz), 4.72 kHz (range 4.20–5.10 kHz), and 4.45 kHz (range 4.05–4.93 kHz), respectively (Fig. 6).</p> <p> <b>Description of tadpole.</b> Descriptive statistics for 10 characters were based on 119 tadpoles from stages 25 to 41 (Table 3). The following description is based on a sample of 32 tadpoles in stage 39 from lot INPA-H 20916 (Table 3). Tadpoles in this lot were collected from clutches in stage 25 and reared to stage 39 before preservation.</p> <p>Body ellipsoid in dorsal view (Fig. 7 A) and flattened in lateral view (Fig. 7 B). Body and tail 36.0% and 64.0%, respectively, of TL; body wider than deep; BH 67.4% of BW at level of spiracle; BW at level of eyes 80.4% of BW at level of spiracle; snout bluntly rounded in dorsal and lateral views; END 0.66 ± 0.04, 62.4% of ED; eyes dorsal and directed laterally; ED 1.07 ± 0.04; IOD 27.3% of HW at level of eyes. Small naris located dorsolaterally and directed anterolaterally; internarial distance 1.74. Sinistral spiracle a free tube, directed dorsolaterally, 1.1, located slightly posterior to mid-body and below lateral midline (Fig. 7 C). Vent tube 1.10 ± 0.19 long, dextral. Caudal musculature deeper than dorsal and ventral fins. Upper fin deeper than lower fin, 0.11 ± 0.01 at midtail. Upper fin originates 0.22 ± 0.02 posterior to junction of body and tail.</p> <p>Oral apparatus emarginate, located anteroventrally, 0.186 ± 0.01 in width (Figs. 8 A and 8B); anterior labium with large papillae only on lateral margin, 4 on each side; posterior labium entirely surrounded by 16 to 19 papillae; papillae on posterolateral margin same size as the posteromedial papillae (Fig. 8 A); submarginal papillae absent; lower jaw sheath V-shaped, deeper than upper jaw sheath; transverse width of upper sheath 0.80 ± 0.004, or 43% of oral disc width. Upper and lower sheaths serrated; serrations extend entire length of sheaths; labial tooth row formula 2(2)/3(1); tooth row A-1 complete, 1.4 ± 0.07; tooth row A- 2 interrupted medially, consisting of two widely separated rows at level of upper jaw sheath, segment 0.43 ± 0.05 in length, with gap of 0.56 ± 0.06. Lower tooth rows shorter than A-1; P-2 (1.32 ± 0.06) slightly longer than P-1 (1.30 ± 0.08) and P-3 (0.93 ± 0.06) shorter in length than P-1 or P-2 (Fig. 8 B).</p> <p> <b>Color of tadpole in life.</b> Dorsal and lateral surfaces of the body are yellow-brown with scattered irregular dark brown flecks (Fig. 8 C). All specimens have a distinct dark brown bar extending from snout through eye to approximately midbody. The ventral surface is transparent with intestines, heart, and other organs visible though skin (Fig. 8 D). The anteroventral surface has a transverse irregular line of dark brown and white flecking; white flecking is present elsewhere on venter. The tail musculature is light yellowish brown, similar to the body. The fins are transparent with tiny irregularly scattered black flecks.</p> <p> <b>Color of preserved tadpoles</b> (INPA-H 20916). The dorsal and lateral areas of the body are light grayish brown with dark brown flecks that give a mottled appearance (Figs. 8 C and 8D). All specimens have a brown dorsolateral stripe from the snout through the eyes to approximately midbody. The anteroventral surface of the body is grayish, opaque; the remainder of the ventral surface is transparent and immaculate; the heart and intestines are visible though the skin. The tail muscle is grayish brown; tail fins are opaque with irregular brown reticulations.</p> <p> <b>Comparison with other species.</b> The free-swimming tadpoles of <i>Allobates caeruleodactylus</i> and <i>A. marchesianus</i> differ from those of <i>A. paleovarzensis</i> in having many fewer papillae on the lower labium; in addition, the papillae on these two species are much longer. Both these species have distinct bars on the tail (Caldwell <i>et al.</i>, 2002a). Labial tooth rows P-1, P-2, and P-3 of the free-swimming tadpole of <i>A. subfolionidificans</i> are subequal, in contrast to <i>A. paleovarzensis</i>, in which P-3 is shorter than P-1 and P-2 (Lima <i>et al.</i>, 2007). <i>A. paleovarzensis</i> has a distinct dark brown bar from the snout through the eye to midbody, which is lacking in the free-swimming tadpole of <i>A. brunneus</i> (Lima <i>et al.</i>, 2009). The tadpole of <i>Allobates nidicola</i> is endotrophic and develops entirely in a terrestrial nest; this highly modified tadpole lacks an oral disc and a spiracle.</p> <p> <b>Natural history</b>. <i>Allobates paleovarzensis</i> occurs in paleovárzea forest near streams. Like other species of <i>Allobates</i> in the region, individuals are most active in early morning and late afternoon. Males typically call from 0 530 to 0 830 h, and again from 1630 h until dusk. On rainy or heavily overcast days, males can be heard calling throughout the day. While generally living in leaf litter on the forest floor, males select calling positions a few centimeters above the litter, such as on leaves or atop small twigs or branches. Calling and reproductive activity occur from the middle of October, depending on timing of the onset of the rainy season, until the dry season starts around the beginning of June.</p> <p>During reproduction, the male sits on the female and grasps her in cephalic amplexus (Fig. 9 A). Clutches of eggs were typically found in leaf litter on small cup-shaped leaves sheltered by overhanging leaves that formed a roof. Of 21 nests that we located, mean clutch size was 25.5 ± 8.5 eggs (range, 9–47). After development in the nest, tadpoles were transported by males to pools near the streams inhabited by the frogs.</p> <p>We witnessed many fights between males. When we played a recorded advertisement call to 7 males, they advanced toward the microphone; thus, it appears that males of this species, like closely related species, defend territories. We did not see aggressive interactions between females.</p> &lt

Temporal patterns of reproductive activity and site attachment of the brilliant-thighed frog allobates femoralis from Central Amazonia

Field observations and mark-recapture sampling carried out in the Reserva Ducke in Central Amazonia provided information on the occurrence of reproductive events of the Brilliant-Thighed Frog, Allobates femoralis, in the context of seasonal rainfall. In addition, we report on the daily pattern of calling activity and the use of space by marked individuals. Rainfall was a strong determinant of the calling and breeding activities at a seasonal scale. The phenology of A. femoralis was affected by interannual differences in both the length and severity of the dry season. This species showed a consistent diel pattern throughout the year, with calling activity peaking between 1500 and 1600 h. At the seasonal scale, calling activity was higher during the wet months and was correlated positively with monthly rainfall. Although recruitment is concentrated in the late wet season, our observations of juveniles in the smallest size classes throughout the year indicated that reproduction occurs sporadically even during the dry season, probably stimulated by isolated episodes of rainfall. Territories varied greatly in size, ranging from 4.8 to 175.7 m2. Females did not establish or defend territories. Individuals of both sexes showed regional interseasonal attachment, and males maintained territories for up to 255 days. © 2012 Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles

A new species of allobates (Anura: Aromobatidae) from paleovárzea forest in Amazonas, Brazil

Numerous species of aromobatid frogs in the genus Allobates from the Amazonian region of Brazil have been described in recent years. Herein, we describe a new Allobates from the state of Amazonas. This species is allopatric with three other species of Allobates, two of which we have described previously. The new species inhabits streams in small remnants of paleovárzea forest along margins of a small river, the Paraná do Castanho. Paleovárzeas are ancient floodplains of the Amazon River and its tributaries. Paleovárzea forests are transitional between terra firme forests, which are never flooded, and várzeas, which are seasonally flooded. Males and females of the new species are similar in size; males average 20.1 mm, females 19.8. Tadpoles have a distinct dark brown bar extending from the snout through the eye to midbody. The call of this species consists of quickly repeated groups of single notes and is unique compared to known species of Allobates. Courtship includes cephalic amplexus. Eggs are deposited on the forest floor in cup-shaped leaves in the litter. Unlike other species of Allobates, egg capsules in this species are opaque instead of clear. Copyright © 2010 Magnolia Press

Temporal Patterns of Reproductive Activity and Site Attachment of the Brilliant-Thighed Frog Allobates femoralis

Field observations and mark-recapture sampling carried out in the Reserva Ducke in Central Amazonia provided information on the occurrence of reproductive events of the Brilliant-Thighed Frog, Allobates femoralis, in the context of seasonal rainfall. In addition, we report on the daily pattern of calling activity and the use of space by marked individuals. Rainfall was a strong determinant of the calling and breeding activities at a seasonal scale. The phenology of A. femoralis was affected by interannual differences in both the length and severity of the dry season. This species showed a consistent diel pattern throughout the year, with calling activity peaking between 1500 and 1600 h. At the seasonal scale, calling activity was higher during the wet months and was correlated positively with monthly rainfall. Although recruitment is concentrated in the late wet season, our observations of juveniles in the smallest size classes throughout the year indicated that reproduction occurs sporadically even during the dry season, probably stimulated by isolated episodes of rainfall. Territories varied greatly in size, ranging from 4.8 to 175.7 m2. Females did not establish or defend territories. Individuals of both sexes showed regional interseasonal attachment, and males maintained territories for up to 255 days. © 2012 Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles

Anthropogenic factors do not affect male or female jaguar habitat use in an Amazonian Sustainable Reserve

Conservation actions should account for species natural history and behavior related to differences between sexes. However, most studies have not taken into consideration non-independence of observations from the same individual. We used data from camera-trap surveys undertaken over six consecutive years to investigate habitat use by jaguar (Panthera onca) in varzea seasonally flooded forest. We used hierarchical modeling to assess sex differences in occurrence probability related to environmental factors, while accounting for individual and spatial autocorrelation. Specifically, we tested whether male and female jaguars responded differently to habitat type and anthropogenic influence. Our results do not support previous conclusions related to differences between sexes and indicate that, in the studied area, jaguars are habitat generalists, exploring all environments with similar probability during the low-water season. Human settlements also apparently have little effect on habitat use by jaguars in this area. The lack of avoidance of settlements might be due to the low levels of anthropogenic pressure in the area, which adds support to the effectiveness of sustainable-development reserves. The difference between our results and previous studies may be due to the fact that we took into account individual differences, or may be related to the unique environmental characteristics of the varzea of Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve in Central Amazonia

AMAZONIA CAMTRAP: a dataset of mammal, bird, and reptile species recorded with camera traps in the Amazon forest

The Amazon forest has the highest biodiversity on earth. However, information on Amazonian vertebrate diversity is still deficient and scattered across the published, peer-reviewed and grey literature and in unpublished raw data. Camera traps are an effective non-invasive method of surveying vertebrates, applicable to different scales of time and space. In this study, we organized and standardized camera trap records from different Amazon regions to compile the most extensive dataset of inventories of mammal, bird and reptile species ever assembled for the area. The complete dataset comprises 154,123 records of 317 species (185 birds, 119 mammals and 13 reptiles) gathered from surveys from the Amazonian portion of eight countries (Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Peru, Suriname and Venezuela). The most frequently recorded species per taxa were: mammals - Cuniculus paca (11,907 records); birds - Pauxi tuberosa (3,713 records); and reptiles - Tupinambis teguixin (716 records). The information detailed in this data paper opens-up opportunities for new ecological studies at different spatial and temporal scales, allowing for a more accurate evaluation of the effects of habitat loss, fragmentation, climate change and other human-mediated defaunation processes in one of the most important and threatened tropical environments in the world. The dataset is not copyright restricted; please cite this data-paper when using its data in publications and we also request that researchers and educators inform us of how they are using this data

NEOTROPICAL XENARTHRANS: a data set of occurrence of xenarthran species in the Neotropics

Xenarthrans—anteaters, sloths, and armadillos—have essential functions forecosystem maintenance, such as insect control and nutrient cycling, playing key roles as ecosys-tem engineers. Because of habitat loss and fragmentation, hunting pressure, and conflicts withdomestic dogs, these species have been threatened locally, regionally, or even across their fulldistribution ranges. The Neotropics harbor 21 species of armadillos, 10 anteaters, and 6 sloths.Our data set includes the families Chlamyphoridae (13), Dasypodidae (7), Myrmecophagidae(3), Bradypodidae (4), and Megalonychidae (2). We have no occurrence data onDasypus pilo-sus(Dasypodidae). Regarding Cyclopedidae, until recently, only one species was recognized,but new genetic studies have revealed that the group is represented by seven species. In thisdata paper, we compiled a total of 42,528 records of 31 species, represented by occurrence andquantitative data, totaling 24,847 unique georeferenced records. The geographic range is fromthe southern United States, Mexico, and Caribbean countries at the northern portion of theNeotropics, to the austral distribution in Argentina, Paraguay, Chile, and Uruguay. Regardinganteaters,Myrmecophaga tridactylahas the most records (n=5,941), andCyclopessp. havethe fewest (n=240). The armadillo species with the most data isDasypus novemcinctus(n=11,588), and the fewest data are recorded forCalyptophractus retusus(n=33). Withregard to sloth species,Bradypus variegatushas the most records (n=962), andBradypus pyg-maeushas the fewest (n=12). Our main objective with Neotropical Xenarthrans is to makeoccurrence and quantitative data available to facilitate more ecological research, particularly ifwe integrate the xenarthran data with other data sets of Neotropical Series that will become available very soon (i.e., Neotropical Carnivores, Neotropical Invasive Mammals, andNeotropical Hunters and Dogs). Therefore, studies on trophic cascades, hunting pressure,habitat loss, fragmentation effects, species invasion, and climate change effects will be possiblewith the Neotropical Xenarthrans data set. Please cite this data paper when using its data inpublications. We also request that researchers and teachers inform us of how they are usingthese data