Fishery Resource Management in Japanese Coastal Areas: A Historical and Institutional Overview

For more than 1300 years, local resource users have been the principal decision makers of fishery resource management in the Japanese institutional framework. After the 2nd W.W., in order to democratize the fishery industry, dramatic institutional reform was carried out under Allied Occupation, and the Current Fishery Law was enacted in 1949. Viewing the Current Fishery Law from an institutional perspective, resource conservation is an integral part of resource use. In other words, resource conservation is the inherent restraint to exercise fishery rights and licenses. Also, Fishery Coordination Committees, which are composed of elected fishermen and local government officials etc., Fishery Cooperative Associations by local fishermen, and Voluntary Agreement Organizations play a main role in fishery adjustments such as rights/licenses allotments, conflict resolutions, local rulemaking, etc. Local governments or research institutes are supporting them through planning, scientific advice or guidelines amongst other things. An example in Kanagawa prefecture, including its administrative costs, is briefly shown as a case study. Recent resource related legislations such as the Resource Management Agreement System, or the Agreement System provided in the TAC Law, are also based upon voluntary agreements by fishermen, and are worth promoting in terms of their administrative cost effectiveness and adaptive capacity. This Japanese institutional system can be seen as a resource Co-Management system. Its system and experiences have the potential to contribute to countries with small scale fisheries, or countries that are going to democratize their fisheries.Keywords: History, Institution, Japan, Co-Management, Resource Management, Fisheries Economics, Coastal Areas, Asian Fisheries and Aquacultur

A decision support tool for response to global change in marine systems : the IMBER-ADApT Framework

Author Posting. © The Author(s), 2014. This is the author's version of the work. It is posted here for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Fish and Fisheries 17 (2016): 1183–1193, doi:10.1111/faf.12110.Global change is occurring now, often with consequences far beyond those anticipated. Although there is a wide range of assessment approaches available to address specific aspects of global change, there is currently no framework to identify what governance responses have worked and where, what has facilitated change, and what preventative options are possible. To respond to this need, we present an integrated assessment framework that builds on knowledge learned from past experience of responses to global change, to enable decision makers, researchers, managers and local stakeholders to: (1) make decisions efficiently; (2) triage and improve their responses; and (3) evaluate where to most effectively allocate resources to reduce vulnerability and enhance resilience of coastal peoples. This integrated assessment framework, IMBER-ADApT is intended to enable and enhance decision making through the development a typology of case studies providing lessons on how the natural, social and governance systems respond to the challenges of global change. The typology is developed from a database of case studies detailing the systems affected by change, responses to change and, critically, an appraisal of these responses, generating knowledge-based solutions that can be applied to other comparable situations. Fisheries, which suffer from multiple pressures, are the current focus of the proposed framework, but it could be applied to a wide range of global change issues. IMBER-ADApT has the potential to contribute to timely, cost-effective policy and governing decision making and responses. It offers cross-scale learning to help ameliorate, and eventually prevent, loss of livelihoods, food sources and habitat

Adaptation to climate-change effects on fisheries in the Shiretoko World Natural Heritage area, Japan

In the Shiretoko World Natural Heritage area, many factors have been observed that imply the effects of climate change on the ecosystems, such as decreases in seasonal sea ice, changes of fishing grounds, appearance of non local species, etc. This study summarizes the observed and anticipated effects of such climate change on the fisheries in the heritage area, and discusses policy and research needs for adapting to these changes. International research and monitoring, at the large marine ecosystems (LME) scale, is the basis of all policy measures for adaptation to climate change. A variety of measures should be combined, taking into account various socioecological aspects of fisheries, and various scales of ecosystems. Such measures of adaptation should be incorporated into the cross sector coordination system, and the Integrated Management Plan, which were newly established for the management of the World Heritage area. Also, we point out that culture is an important part of society, and the World Heritage Program may offer clues for creating a new peaceful culture based on the LME

次世代への海洋生態系保全と水産食料安全保障 : 知床世界自然遺産地域の水産生態系アプローチと順応的管理

1. Human dimensions of global change in marine ecosystem. Marine ecosystems are impacted by global-scale climate variability and change. It was recognized, however, that human activities such as intensive fishing also have strong impacts on marine ecosystems, which may occur on more immediate time scales than those of climate change. The recent international ocean research programs such as IMBER (Integrated Marine Biogeochemistry and Ecosystem Research) focus on the human dimensions of global change in marine ecosystems, and expand on the concept of coupled marine social-ecological systems. Fisheries management is evolving towards ecosystem-based approaches from the study and management of single species. Efforts are now being made to measure and alleviate the ecosystem effects of fishing (Hall 1999) and focus is very much on how an Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries (EAF) may be implemented (Garcia and Cochrane 2005). Further, a full social-ecological system approach to the management of marine resources must involve multiple-scale (from government to local fishing sectors) objective setting based on societal choices, including ecological, economic and social considerations. Operational objectives need to be established, requiring the identification of indicators and reference points for sector impacts. Decision support and performance evaluation rules need to be established, including their uncertainties. Future change in marine systems will not be due to climate alone, but to the interactions of climate variability, climate change, and direct-human effects, and future marine research and management must take account of this reality. How to evaluate the ecological status of the world's exploited marine ecosystems subject to multiple drivers is to bring together a broader group of experts to further explore, test and expand the development of a suite of robust ecosystem indicators for detecting ecosystem change in response to fishing and environmental impacts. 2. EAF and adaptive fisheries management of the Shiretoko World Natural Heritage Site, Hokkaido, Japan. Marginal seas contribute a substantial share to the world fisheries catch are hence significantly impacted by human exploitation. Additionally these areas are increasingly affected by climate variability and change. For log-term sustainable utilization of marine resources in marginal sea, local fisher's awareness change regarding the EAF and adaptive fisheries management may be needed. Adaptive management predicts and monitors changes in the ecosystem and subsequently reviews and adjusts the management and use of natural resources (Matsuda et al., 2009). Such predictions and monitoring are best accompanied by feedback controls, such as the verification of hypotheses based on the results of monitoring in order to review and modify management activities. Fisheries management in Japan is characterized by seeking balance between sustainable use and ecosystem conservation and involving the co-management of fishers' organizations (Makino et al., 2008). Fisheries in Japan face several important challenges, e.g., (i) exclusive use by fisherman with fishery rights/licenses (there are few exceptions for free-fisheries and recreational angling), (ii) lack of full transparency in management procedures, (iii) lack of objective benchmarks or numerical goals in management plans, and (iv) strong dependency on political pressure from abroad. Here, we elaborate upon these characteristics of and issues facing the management of marine ecosystems in Japan (Matsuda et. al., 2009). We will present the Marine Management Plan for the Shiretoko World Natural Heritage Site, Japan, as a case study of adaptive marine ecosystem management and co-management of coastal fisheries. The Oyashio shelf region and the seasonally ice-covered areas north of Hokkaido including Shiretoko are highly productive, supporting a wide range of species such as marine mammals, seabirds and commercially important species in the western subarctic Pacific (Sakurai, 2007). Shiretoko is the third World Natural Heritage Site registered in Japan and earned this title because of its (i) formation of seasonal sea ice at some of the lowest latitudes in the world, (ii) high biodiversity, and (iii) many globally threatened species. The natural resource management plan of the Shiretoko site is characterized by transparency and consensus building, because (i) UNESCO and IUCN require that the plan be sustainable; and (ii) the Government of Japan has guaranteed local fisheries that there will be no additional regulations included in the plan. The Marine Management Plan describes which species and factors are monitored, how these data are evaluated, and how the benchmarks specified by ecosystem management are determined. The Plan will provide a valuable example for the establishment of "environment-friendly fisheries" in Japan and other countries, because it includes voluntary activities by resource users that are suitable for use in a local context, flexible to ecological/social fluctuations, and efficiently implemented through increased legitimacy and compliance. This approach is appropriate for developing coastal countries where a large number of small-scale fishers catch a variety of species using various types of gear (Matsuda et al., 2009).1. 海洋生態系はどのように変化する. 海洋生態系は，漁業を含む人間活動と地球温暖化を含む気候変化に応答して常に変化する非定常で境界のないシステムである。すでに，漁業生産は増える見込みはなく，未利用資源もほとんどなく，むしろ減少した資源の再生と現存する資源の持続的な利用が求められている。海洋生態系や回遊経路がわずか30年間で激変した例として，アラスカ湾の底性生物群集（エビからタラ類），オホーツク海で繁殖するトドの越冬回遊が，オホーツク海の流氷域面積の減少に伴って変化した例がある。はやり，地球温暖化が心配であり，日本の周りでも，過去100年間の海面水温は，特に黒潮，対馬暖流が流れる海域で1℃以上も上昇している。IPCC（気候変動に関する政府間パネル）の第4次報告の21世紀中における温暖化シナリオの一つとして，2050年に2℃，2100 年に4℃上がると予想している。温暖化に対する海の変化のシナリオを作り，それに対する対応策も不可欠で，すでに，ノルウェーでは温暖化してタラが北極海に移動することを想定して，タラの完全養殖を始めている。このようなシナリオにならないように，温暖化を何としても防ぐ努力が不可欠と言える。今，心配されている海の変化では，より大きな魚の乱獲が進み，次第に小型魚の世界に変わって生物多様性は失われ，寿命が1年のイカ類やクラゲ類の世界になる可能性がある。事実，日本海は大型のエチゼンクラゲや中南米太平洋沖の大型イカ，アメリカオオアカイカが爆発的に増加が起きている。海洋生態系は，食物関係を通して気候変化が原因のボトムアップ制御と，捕食者側の大型魚の増減（漁獲が影響する）によるトップダウン制御が働いている。さらに，気候変化などによって大きな増減をするイワシなの浮魚類やイカ類がその上下の栄養階層の生物に影響する制御（Wasp-waist）があることが判ってきた。講演では，南東ベーリング海生態系におけるスケトウダラ資源の増減がもたらす生態系変化の事例を紹介する。海の環境は数十年間続く寒冷期，そして温暖期への変化（海洋環境のレジームシフト）を繰り返してきた。東アジアでは，冬の季節風（北西風）の強さが海の水温やオホーツク海の流氷の多さに影響を受けている。1970年代半ば-1980年代後半の寒冷レジーム期には，マイワシの爆発的増加があり，1988/89年の温暖へのレジームシフト以降は，温暖な時に増えるカタクチイワシ，アジ，スルメイカが増えている。この現象は，海洋環境のレジームシフトに伴う“魚種交替”と呼ばれている。海洋生態系は複雑で変化の予測が難しいシステムである。将来何が起きるか，観測，生物採集などのモニタリング，さらにモデリング，過去の出来事の解析などをもとに，予防原則に基づいた順応的管理を進める「持続可能な漁業管理を目指した生態系アプローチが」必要である。2. 知床世界自然遺産海域における生態系アプローチと順応的管理. 2005年7月に，知床はユネスコにて世界自然遺産に登録され，岸から3kmまでの海部分が遺産登録地域に指定されている。登録の際には，海域部分の管理保全にむけた海域管理計画の策定，加えて，サケ類が川に昇れるようにダムなどの改善が求められた。知床は，その豊かな海の生産を背景に，サケ・マスの定置網漁業やスケトウダラの刺し網・延縄漁業が営まれている。2008年春に，知床の生態系の豊かさと持続的漁業の共存に向けた海域管理計画（環境省・北海道）を策定した。基本的なコンセプトは，既存の法律などのルールに加えて，漁業やリクリエーションでは，自主的管理方法の両輪で実施すること，適切な管理方策のための，海洋環境と生物のモニタリングなどを通して，海域と海洋生物の保護を行うルールを決めることである。知床の海では，トド，海ワシ類，鯨類などの高次な栄養階層からスケトウダラ，ホッケ，スルメイカ，さらには多様な生物の食う‐食われるの関係が営まれており，漁業もその構成要素である。羅臼側のスケトウダラ漁業では，過去の漁獲量の激減などを経験している。これまでに，減船に加えて，スケトウダラの産卵場の禁漁区設定，漁具の刺し網の網目を大きくするなど，漁業者自身による自主的漁業管理のルールを作って，資源の保護に努めている。知床では，すでに海洋生態系の順応的管理は行われ，モニタリング，モデリング，管理計画の設計と実施，さらにそれを見直しながら，順応的な持続的漁業と海洋生態系の保全の両立に向かっている。知床では，世界自然遺産にかかわる多様な委員会があり，中でも科学委員会には，国，北海道，町などの行政機関，科学者，漁業者も参加して，管理方策を検討している。どの委員会にも漁業関係者が参加しており，このような例は，国内外でも例を見ない。このような各種委員会が相互に機能して，環境の再生や保全，科学的なモニタリング，その評価を行う科学委員会の開催など，知床世界自然遺産地域の保全に向かっている。これにかかる費用は，2006年を例にすると，この海域の漁業生産の約2％（約4億7千万円）に満たない。「知床方式」と呼ぶこの管理方策は，漁業者自らの知識と自主的漁業管理，多様な生態系を構成する海洋生物との共存（生態系アプローチによる漁業管理），であり，その意思決定に漁業者も参加している。ユネスコの世界自然遺産センターのRao所長は，「知床は，世界の海域を含む世界自然遺産の環境保護に向けた新しいモデルである」と高く評価している。3. 最後に. 持続的漁業と生態系サービスに基づいた生物多様性の保全は，相対立するものではない。知床の漁業者は，この共同管理に生態系アプローチを用いて積極的にかかわっている。責任ある漁業として，多様な水産生物の節度ある利用は，健全な海洋生態系の鍵種や構成要素ともいえる。ただし，ロシアが実効支配している北方4島がすぐ目の前にあり，ロシアによるトロール漁業でスケトウダラが漁獲されている。近い将来，北方4島を含めた世界自然遺産として，この海域の生態系の保全と持続的な漁業の共存できること，そして，この取り組みが，地球を1周するほどの沿岸線を持つ日本の豊かな海を守り続ける大切な一歩となることを願っている。Lecture

Fishery resource management and environmental preservation - institutional Comparison between United States and Japan

Southeast Asia Sea Turtle Cooperative Research (SEASTAR2000)ORGANISED BY KYOTO UNIVERSITY, JAPAN ; THE UNEVERSITY OF TOKYO, JAPAN ; PHUKET MARINE BIOLOGICAL CENTER, THAILAND ; SEA TURTLE CONSERVATION STATION, THAILAND ; MARINE FISHERIES DIVISION, DEPARTMENT OF FISHERIES, THAILANDPHUKET, Thailand 11-13, December 2001lnformatics Research Center for Development of Knowledge Society Intrastructur