Towards A Measure Of General Machine Intelligence

To build general-purpose artificial intelligence systems that can deal with unknown variables across unknown domains, we need benchmarks that measure how well these systems perform on tasks they have never seen before. A prerequisite for this is a measure of a task's generalization difficulty, or how dissimilar it is from the system's prior knowledge and experience. If the skill of an intelligence system in a particular domain is defined as it's ability to consistently generate a set of instructions (or programs) to solve tasks in that domain, current benchmarks do not quantitatively measure the efficiency of acquiring new skills, making it possible to brute-force skill acquisition by training with unlimited amounts of data and compute power. With this in mind, we first propose a common language of instruction, a programming language that allows the expression of programs in the form of directed acyclic graphs across a wide variety of real-world domains and computing platforms. Using programs generated in this language, we demonstrate a match-based method to both score performance and calculate the generalization difficulty of any given set of tasks. We use these to define a numeric benchmark called the generalization index, or the g-index, to measure and compare the skill-acquisition efficiency of any intelligence system on a set of real-world tasks. Finally, we evaluate the suitability of some well-known models as general intelligence systems by calculating their g-index scores.Comment: 31 pages, 15 Figures, 3 Tables; Sample Data and g-index Reference Code at https://github.com/mayahq/g-index-benchmark; g-index toy environment at https://github.com/mayahq/flatland; version 2 added a section about the toy environment; version 3 compressed images to reduce file size; version 4 updated description of flatland toy environmen

Transverse cerebellar diameter: a reliable predictor of gestational age

Objectives: To determine accuracy of transverse cerebellar diameter (TCD) measurement in the prediction of gestational age (GA) in normal fetuses; to develop reference chart for TCD according to GA in Indian population. Design: A retrospective cross-sectional study. Method: Ultrasonographic measurements in 300 singleton pregnant women included biparietal diameter (cm), head circumference (cm), abdominal circumference (cm), femur length (cm) and transverse cerebellar diameter (cm). Reference chart with mean TCD for corresponding gestational age (GA) in weeks was developed. Results: Statistically significant relationship found between TCD and gestational age (R2=0.92, p=0.0006). Regression formulae based on TCD with other parameter can be used to predict gestational age of foetus. When TCD is compared with findings in other studies in different ethnic population, it is found that there is significant difference exists. Conclusion: In normally developing fetuses the TCD has linear correlation with advancing gestational age. A separate reference chart is required for every different population because ethnicity, nutrition and environmental factors can have impact on normal TCD values. This will help to avoid misinterpretation of data to determine gestational age

Olfaktorisches Gedächtnis in der Drosophila Larve

An animal depends heavily on its sense of smell and its ability to form olfactory associations as this is crucial for its survival. This thesis studies in two parts about such associative olfactory learning in larval Drosophila. The first part deals with different aspects of odour processing while the second part is concerned with aspects related to memory and learning. Chapter I.1 highlights how odour intensities could be integrated into the olfactory percept of larval Drosophila. I first describe the dose-effect curves of learnability across odour intensities for different odours and then choose odour intensities from these curves such that larvae are trained at intermediate odour intensity, but are tested for retention with either that trained intermediate odour intensity, or with respectively HIGHer or LOWer intensities. I observe a specificity of retention for the trained intensity for all the odours used. Further I compare these findings with the case of adult Drosophila and propose a circuit level model of how such intensity coding comes about. Such intensity specificity of learning adds to appreciate the richness in 'content' of olfactory memory traces, and to define the demands on computational models of olfaction and olfactory learning. Chapter I.2 provides a behaviour-based estimate of odour similarity using four different types of experiments to yield a combined, task-independent estimate of perceived difference between odour-pairs. Further comparison of these perceived differences to published measures of physico- chemical difference reveals a weak correlation. Notable exceptions to this correlation are 3-octanol and benzaldehyde. Chapter I.3 shows for two odours (3-octanol and 1-octene-3-ol) that perceptual differences between these odours can either be ignored after non-discriminative training (generalization), or accentuated by odour-specific reinforcement (discrimination). Anosmic Or83b1 mutants have lost these faculties, indicating that this adaptive adjustment is taking place downstream of Or83b expressing sensory neurons. Chapter II.1 of this thesis deals with food supplementation with dried roots of Rhodiola rosea. This dose-dependently improves odour- reward associative function in larval Drosophila. Supplementing fly food with commercially available tablets or extracts, however, does not have a 'cognitive enhancing' effect, potentially enabling us to differentiate between the effective substances in the root versus these preparations. Thus Drosophila as a genetically tractable study case should now allow accelerated analyses of the molecular mechanism(s) that underlie this 'cognitive enhancement' conveyed by Rhodiola rosea. Chapter II.2 describes the role of Synapsin, an evolutionarily conserved presynaptic phosphoprotein using a combined behavioural and genetic approach and asks where and how, this protein affects functions in associative plasticity of larval Drosophila. This study shows that a Synapsin-dependent memory trace can be pinpointed to the mushroom bodies, a 'cortical' brain region of the insects. On the molecular level, data in this study assign Synapsin as a behaviourally- relevant effector of the AC-cAMP-PKA cascade.Das Überleben von Tieren ist in hohem Maße abhängig von ihrer Fähigkeit zu riechen und olfaktorische Gedächtnisse zu bilden. Meine Arbeit besteht aus zwei Abschnitten, in denen ich solche Prozesse anhand von Drosophila Larven untersuche. Im ersten Abschnitt beschreibe ich verschiedene Aspekte der Geruchsprozessierung, der zweite Abschnitt betrifft Gedächtnis- und Lernprozesse. Kapitel I.1 handelt davon, wie Geruchsintensitäten in die olfaktorische Wahrnehmung von Drosophila-Larven integriert sein könnten. Zuerst beschreibe ich die Lernbarkeit verschiedener Duftstoffe abhängig von ihren Intensitäten. Anhand dieser Dosis-Wirkungs-Kurven wähle ich dann eine niedrige, eine mittlere, und eine hohe Duft-Intensität. Ich trainiere Larven mit der mittleren Duft-Intensität und teste sie entweder mit dieser mittleren Intensität, oder mit der höheren, oder mit der niedrigen Duft-Intensität. Ich beobachte, dass der Gedächtnisabruf mit der trainierten Intensität für alle verwendeten Duftstoffe am besten ist. Außerdem vergleiche ich diese Ergebnisse mit denen von adulten Fruchtfliegen und schlage ein Schaltkreis-Modell vor, das erklärt, wie eine solche Kodierung der Intensität zustande kommen kann. Eine solche Spezifität für Intensitäten beim Lernen erweitert die bisher bekannte Fülle des ‚Inhalts’ von olfaktorischen Gedächtnisspuren und die Anforderungen an Computermodelle über Riechen und Geruchslernen. In Kapitel I.2 untersuche ich Ähnlichkeitsbeziehungen zwischen Duftpaaren anhand der Wahrnehmung von Larven. Ich verwende dazu vier verschiedene Typen von Lernexperimenten. Durch Kombination der Ergebnisse dieser vier Experimente erhalte ich eine aufgabenunabhängige Abschätzung der vom Tier wahrgenommenen Ähnlichkeiten zwischen Paaren von Duftstoffen. Ein Vergleich dieser wahrgenommenen Ähnlichkeiten mit veröffentlichten Messungen von physikalischen und chemischen Ähnlichkeiten ergibt eine schwache Korrelation. Eine erwähnenswerte Ausnahme zu dieser Korrelation ist das Duftpaar 3-Octanol und Benzaldehyd. Kapitel I.3 zeigt für zwei Duftstoffe (3-Octanol und 1-Octen-3-ol), dass die wahrgenommene Ähnlichkeit zwischen diesen beiden Duftstoffen abhängig ist von der Art des Trainings. Wenn die Tiere nicht-diskriminativ trainiert werden, werden die Düfte vom Tier generalisiert, während diskriminatives Training die wahrgenommene Unterschiede zwischen den Düften erhöht. Anosmische Or83b1-Mutanten haben diese Fähigkeiten verloren, was darauf hindeutet, das diese adaptive Anpassung in Nervenzellen stattfindet, die den Or83b-exprimierenden sensorischen Neuronen nachgeschaltet sind. In Kapitel II.1 untersuche ich die Auswirkung von Zugabe getrockneter Wurzeln der Pflanze Rhodiola rosea zum Fliegenfutter. Ich finde heraus, dass Rhodiola rosea dosisabhängig die olfaktorische Konditionierung von Drosophila-Larven verbessert. Die Zugabe von kommerziell verfügbaren Tabletten oder Extrakten zum Fliegenfutter hat keinen positiven Effekt auf solche „kognitiven“ Fähigkeiten, was uns möglicherweise erlaubt, zwischen den effektiven Substanzen der Wurzel und diesen Präparaten zu differenzieren. Drosophila als genetisch manipulierbarer Modellorganismus sollte uns nun weiterführende Analysen der molekularen Mechanismen erlauben, die dieser „kognitiven Verbesserung“ durch Rhodiola rosea zugrunde liegen. Kapitel II.2 beschreibe ich die Funktion von Synapsin, einem evolutionär konservierten präsynaptischen Phosphoprotein. Ich verwende dazu einen kombinierten verhaltensbasierten und genetischen Ansatz. Untersucht wird, wo und wie dieses Protein assoziative Plastizität im Gehirn von Drosophila-Larven beeinflusst. Diese Studie zeigt, dass eine Synapsin-abhängige Gedächtnisspur im Pilzkörper, einer „kortikalen“ Gehirnregion der Insekten, lokalisiert werden kann. Auf der molekularen Ebene zeigen die Ergebnisse dieser Studie Synapsin als einen im Verhalten wichtigen Effektor der AC-cAMP-Kaskade. * Many thanks to M. Schlayer, T. Niewalda and T. Saumweber for their help in this translation

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Not AvailableUnder traditional planting system of guava, nutrient management practices have been standardized. However, high-density orcharding of guava is gaining momentum owing to more profit per unit area. It is therefore imperative to asses’ nutrient requirement under high density planting system. Such recommendations should be based on nutrient removal studies under different densities. Keeping these points in view, present study was undertaken and it was observed that there was significant effect of plant densities on nitrogen removal during winter cropping with maximum uptake (75.15 kg/ha) in T5 (278 pls/ha). The highest phosphorus removal (18.30 kg/ha) was recorded during rainy season under T1 (833 pls/ha). During winter cropping significantly higher amount of potassium (71.93 kg/ha) was removed through fruits in T5 (278 pls/ha). About 2-2.5 times more quantity of nutrients were removed during rainy season. Thus for getting sustainable yield year after year it is necessary to replenish these nutrients in form of manure and fertilizers.Not Availabl

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Not AvailableUnder north Indian conditions, Chausa is considered as an important commercial cultivar of mango, because it is a late maturing type. The tree of Chausa attains huge stature and becomes over crowded after about 35–40 years of growth. Trees were subjected to three pruning treatments, viz. T-l (heading back up to tertiary branches), T-2 (heading back up to secondary branches) and T-3 (centre opening). After eight years of experimentation, lowest tree height (4.60 m) was recorded in trees with T-1 treatment followed by 4.90 m in T-2 treatment. Canopy spread was found at par in all the treatments. New shoots emerged on trees in T-1 and T-2 treatments, showed fast growth and attained more length. Average flowering data of eight years showed that under all the pruning treatments, enhanced flowering (44.78 - 58.40%) was noticed as compared to control (36.14%). Cumulative yield data of eight years showed that maximum fruit yield (317.50 kg) was obtained from T-2 followed by T-3 (300.45 kg plant−1), while lowest fruit yield (235.25 kg) was recorded in un-pruned trees. Effect of pruning treatments was also visible on fruit quality parameters. The highest average fruit weight (210.15 g) was recorded in fruits obtained from T-3 while lowest fruit weight was recorded in fruits obtained from control. Values of TSS were also found on higher scale in fruits from pruning treatments. Maximum TSS (25.10°Brix) was recorded in fruits obtained from T-3 while 23.20°Brix TSS was recorded in control.Not AvailableICAR-CIS

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Not AvailableUnder north Indian conditions, Chausa is considered as an important commercial cultivar of mango, because it is a late maturing type. The tree of Chausa attains huge stature and becomes over crowded after about 35–40 years of growth. Trees were subjected to three pruning treatments, viz. T-l (heading back up to tertiary branches), T-2 (heading back up to secondary branches) and T-3 (centre opening). After eight years of experimentation, lowest tree height (4.60 m) was recorded in trees with T-1 treatment followed by 4.90 m in T-2 treatment. Canopy spread was found at par in all the treatments. New shoots emerged on trees in T-1 and T-2 treatments, showed fast growth and attained more length. Average flowering data of eight years showed that under all the pruning treatments, enhanced flowering (44.78 - 58.40%) was noticed as compared to control (36.14%). Cumulative yield data of eight years showed that maximum fruit yield (317.50 kg) was obtained from T-2 followed by T-3 (300.45 kg plant−1), while lowest fruit yield (235.25 kg) was recorded in un-pruned trees. Effect of pruning treatments was also visible on fruit quality parameters. The highest average fruit weight (210.15 g) was recorded in fruits obtained from T-3 while lowest fruit weight was recorded in fruits obtained from control. Values of TSS were also found on higher scale in fruits from pruning treatments. Maximum TSS (25.10°Brix) was recorded in fruits obtained from T-3 while 23.20°Brix TSS was recorded in control.Not Availabl

Performance analysis of automatic generation control of interconnected power systems with delayed mode operation of area control error

This study presents automatic generation control (AGC) of interconnected power systems comprising of two thermal and one hydro area having integral controllers. Emphasis is given to a delay in the area control error for the actuation of the supplementary controller and to examine its impact on the dynamic response against no delay which is usually the practice. Analysis is based on 50% loading condition in all the areas. The system performance is examined considering 1% step load perturbation. Results reveal that delayed mode operation provides a better system dynamic performance compared with that obtained without delay and has several distinct merits for the governor. The delay is linked with reduction in wear and tear of the secondary controller and hence increases the life of the governor. The controller gains are optimised by particle swarm optimisation. The performance of delayed mode operation of AGC at other loading conditions is also analysed. An attempt has also been made to find the impact of weights for different components in a cost function used to optimise the controller gains. A modified cost function having different weights for different components when used for controller gain optimisation improves the system performance

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Not AvailableA study was conducted to rejuvenate sixty years old unproductive seedling aonla trees. Six improved cultivars viz., NA-6, NA-7, NA-10, Kanchan, Krishna and Chakaiya were top worked during June, 2001. Krishna showed better performance during top working by giving 77.77 per cent bud take followed by NA-10 and NA-7. However, minimum graft success was recorded in cv. Kanchan. The budding height also influenced the bud take and height more than 2.5 m from the ground reduced bud take considerably. The top worked trees started bearing after two years of budding and cv. NA-7 performed better than other cultivars.Not Availabl

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Not AvailableForty-five-year-old, dense and declined mango orchard of cv. Dashehari was subjected to different pruning treatments in order to study their effect on growth parameters, bearing behaviour and quality of fruits. After twelve years of pruning, highest increase in tree height was recorded in first order pruned trees. Highest values of shoot length were recorded in fourth order pruned trees, while highest value of shoot girth was recorded in first order pruned trees. Canopy spread was recorded highest in control. There was loss of fruiting for initial two years in severe pruning treatments (first and second order pruned trees), while from third year onwards; there was a gradual increase in fruit yield in these treatments. In moderate and light pruning treatments (third to fifth order pruned trees), there was continuous fruiting from first year onwards with an increasing trend for initial 3–4 years, thereafter inconsistent yields were obtained.Not Availabl