Developments in Water Pollution Law and Policy in China: Effective Enough to Cope with Water Pollution Conflict?

Water pollution is one of the most serious environmental issues facing China. In 2005, an exceptionally serious water pollution accident in the Songhua River — caused by an unintended and sudden chemicals explosion — heralded an official recognition of a water pollution crisis in China. Although there have been new initiatives in national law and policy concerning water pollution that attempt to respond to issues of: social conflict caused by water pollution; government accountability; liability of polluting entities; and citizens’ rights in cases of water pollution, the challenges for the rule of environmental law in effectively reducing water pollution accidents and resolving water pollution conflict still exist. There is an urgent need to strengthen compliance and enforcement. This paper discusses the issues of water pollution conflict and the possible resolutions offered through law and policy

Global Environmental Law: Food Safety & China

This article makes the case for food security law and policy as a component of global environmental law in recognition of the global economy, trade liberalization, and concerns for food safety and environmental harm. It further describes rule of law as a significant force in mitigating food safety concerns and pollution in China. Part II explores global food safety concerns in the context of United States-China relations, while Part III discusses the U.S. Food & Drug Administration\u27s on-the-ground presence in China as an example of the emergence of cooperative agreements in global environmental governance. Part IV shows how increased rule of law may mitigate environmental harm and food safety concerns in China. The article concludes by arguing that increased international cooperation on traditionally domestic issues is both likely and desirable, and it illustrates the need for increased rule of law efforts in the developing world

Disruptive Events of Environmental Pollution as a Transformative Force - The Impact of Extreme Air Pollution on Policy Making in China

During the month of January 2013, Beijing suffered air pollution of unprecedented intensity. This event, which was named "Airpocalypse" in international media, was followed by vibrant media reporting and public discussion on the topic and prompted the central government to issue unusually ambitious measures to contain air pollution more effectively. This dissertation explores the impact of the "Airpocalypse" on China's air quality governance as well as the underlying factors which caused the central government to react differently to the "Airpocalypse" compared to previous events of extreme air pollution. Based on qualitative interviews, a quantitative timeline analysis and a quantitative survey, following factors were identified to have had a significant direct or indirect influence on central government decision making during and after the "Airpocalypse": 1) Historically high levels of particulate matter concentration, 2) Improved level of publicly accessible information on particulate matter concentrations in large Chinese cities, 3) Unprecedented intensity of media reporting and public discussion on air pollution, 4) The ongoing government transition from the administration of Hu Jintao to the administration of Xi Jinping. The theoretical framework of this dissertation consists of three approaches: Focusing Events (based on Birkland 1997), Media Agenda Setting (based on McCombs and Shaw 1972) and New Institutional Economics (based on Williamson 1975). These approaches can be meaningfully combined in order to identify impactful events of pollution as well as identify and interpret their consequences in the Chinese context

Phosphorus recovery from municipal and fertilizer wastewater: China's potential and perspective

Phosphorus (P) is a limited resource, which can neither be synthesized nor substituted in its essential functions as nutrient. Currently explored and economically feasible global reserves may be depleted within generations. China is the largest phosphate fertilizer producing and consuming country in the world. China's municipal wastewater contains up to 293,163 Mg year of phosphorus, which equals approximately 5.5% of the chemical fertilizer phosphorus consumed in China. Phosphorus in wastewater can be seen not only as a source of pollution to be reduced, but also as a limited resource to be recovered. Based upon existing phosphorus-recovery technologies and the current wastewater infrastructure in China, three options for phosphorus recovery from sewage sludge, sludge ash and the fertilizer industry were analyzed according to the specific conditions in China

Challenges to China\u27s Natural Resources Conservation and Biodiversity Legislation

Despite China\u27s legislative attempts to conserve its natural resources and in turn protect biodiversity, Chinese law in many aspects remains ineffective in pursuit of these goals due to struggles with implementation, enforcement, and insufficient public participation, as well as legislative prioritization of economic values over ecological ones. This Article provides an overview of biodiversity and conservation legislation in China, and suggests that China can improve this legislation by increasing the public\u27s role in conservation efforts, increasing liability and enforcement mechanisms, and improving administrative coordination

Green from Above: Climate Change, New Developmental Strategy, and Regulatory Choice in China

This essay discusses a developmental strategy formulated in China between 2004 and 2007, with a strong emphasis on energy efficiency in response to growing pressure from global concerns of climate change. It tries to show how a top-down regulatory structure was reinforced in the process

Hazard posed by metals and As in PM2.5 in air of five megacities in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region of China during APEC

Airborne fine particulate matter (PM2.5) from five megacities including Beijing, Tianjin, Shijiazhuang, Baoding, and Jinan were collected during November 2014 and compared with similar periods in 2012 and 2013. The November 2014 period coincided with the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Leaders Meeting during which measures to control pollution of the air were introduced. Concentrations of 11 elements in PM2.5 were quantified by inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) after microwave-assisted digestion. Potential effects of five toxic trace metals including Mn, Ni, Cu, Zn, Pb, and the metalloid As on health were assessed. In 2014, concentrations of PM2.5 were significantly less than during the same period in 2012 and 2013. Mean concentrations of six elements ranked in decreasing order, Zn > Pb > Cu ≈ Mn > As > Ni, and spatial concentrations ranked in decreasing order, Shijiazhuang > Baoding > Tianjin > Jinan > Beijing. Risks of the five metals and the metalloid As to health of humans were small, except for Mn in Shijiazhuang. Risks to health posed by other elements were less during the period of study. Risks posed by the five metals and As in Beijing were greater to varying degrees after the APEC meeting. Risks to health of humans during the APEC were overall lesser than the same period in 2012 and 2013, mostly due to lesser emissions due to the short-term control measures

Soil contamination in China : studies on the status, priorities, policies, management and risk assessment

As China is trying to balance economic development, environmental safety and human health, the Government has released strategic plans and legislation for soil contamination management. Aspects of the quality of China’s soils and management of soil contamination in China are addressed in this thesis. Soil environmental quality standards and science-based risk assessment of contaminants in soils are evaluated. China and the UK use different risk-based approaches to derive soil screening or guideline values (SSVs; SGVs) for contaminants. The approaches are compared and values derived for 6 illustrative contaminants. China’s SSVs are derived using an approach developed in the US as follows: for carcinogens, acceptable level of risk (ACR) is set at 10-6 and the SSVs calculated as 10-6 divided by the soil exposure and toxicity data; for non-carcinogens, the hazard quotient is 1 and the SSV is calculated as 1 divided by the soil exposure and toxicity data. The UK’s SGVs are calculated by the CLEA model, for which the Average Daily Exposure (ADE) from soil sources by a specific exposure route equals the health criteria values (HCVs) for that route, whether for carcinogens or a non-carcinogens. The UK’s CLEA model is also used here to derive SSVs with Chinese input parameters. China’s SSVs, the UK’s SGVs and values for Chinese conditions derived using the UK approach were as follows (mg/kg): As, <1, 35, 20; Cd, 20, 18, 11; Cr (VI), <1, 14, 29; benzene, 1, 1, 2; toluene, 1200, 3005, 3800; ethyl-benzene, 7, 930, 1200. The difference in toxicity assessment and risk characterization for carcinogens results in the biggest difference in SSVs between the 2 countries. However, for non-carcinogenic substances, the difference of SSVs calculation method and SSVs is small. In the future, China can use the UK method to strengthen its toxicity assessment and risk characterization for carcinogenic substances. Data was made available for this thesis from an extensive field and analytical campaign of human exposure to heavy metals in China. This was used to calculate the relative contributions of exposure to As, Cd, Cr, Hg and Pb from environmental media (air, water, soils) via the inhalation, drinking and the diet for different regions of China. Dietary exposure dominated, contributing ~90-97% of the total exposure for these elements. Exposure differences were observed with gender, age and region. This survey information can be used to derive exposures from soil-borne sources. Soil organic matter (SOM) and pH are critical soil properties strongly linked to carbon storage, nutrient cycling and crop productivity, but there is a lack of information on changes in these soil properties over time for China. This study used data from Chinese soil surveys to examine changes in soil pH and SOM across different land uses (dry farmland, paddy fields, grassland, woodland, unused land), with surface soil (0-20 cm) collected in the periods 1985-90 (Survey 1; 890 samples) and 2006-10 (Survey 2; 5005 samples) from two contrasting areas. In the southern part of China, the mean pH of paddy soils fell over the two decades between surveys - from pH 5.81 to 5.19 (p<0.001), while dry farmlands in the northern sampling area fell slightly (from pH 8.15 to 7.82; p<0.001). The mean SOM content of dry farmland soil rose in both areas and the mean SOM of paddy fields in the southern area also rose (all p<0.001). Woodland soil pH in the south increased from 4.71 to 5.29 (p<0.001) but no significant difference was measured in the woodlands of the northern area, although the trend increased. The SOM content of woodland top soils rose in the northern (p=0.003) and southern (p<0.001) study areas. The implications and potential causes of these changes are discussed and suggestions made as to how large-scale soil sampling campaigns can be designed to monitor for changes and potential controlling factors. Because of rapid urbanization in China, the demand for land for urban development is increasing. To upgrade and modernize, China has also moved many major industries and factories from urban centres to less populated areas. With the high economic value of urban land, the transformation and utilization of the brownfield areas left behind has become important economically and socially. Strong scientific, regulatory and decision-making frameworks are needed, to ensure practical, careful and wise use of central and local Government resources, to manage the re-use and regeneration of these brownfield sites. The final chapter provides a thorough review of the background, context, regulations, policies and management procedures to develop and utilize brownfields in developed countries such as the US and UK, and identifies some of the priorities for brownfield governance and redevelopment in China. It is proposed: to establish a monitoring body, to identify shared responsibilities and inputs of various stakeholders, to establish brownfield databases, and to set up a remediation advisory system with technology support as future priorities of brownfield management. Recommendations are made for future research, to support China’s strategic management of soil resources

Impacts of soil and water pollution on food safety and health risks in China

Environmental pollution and food safety are two of the most important issues of our time. Soil and water pollution, in particular, have historically impacted on food safety which represents an important threat to human health. Nowhere has that situation been more complex and challenging than in China, where a combination of pollution and an increasing food safety risk have affected a large part of the population. Water scarcity, pesticide over-application, and chemical pollutants are considered to be the most important factors impacting on food safety in China. Inadequate quantity and quality of surface water resources in China have led to the long-term use of waste-water irrigation to fulfill the water requirements for agricultural production. In some regions this has caused serious agricultural land and food pollution, especially for heavy metals. It is important, therefore, that issues threatening food safety such as combined pesticide residues and heavy metal pollution are addressed to reduce risks to human health. The increasing negative effects on food safety from water and soil pollution have put more people at risk of carcinogenic diseases, potentially contributing to ‘cancer villages’ which appear to correlate strongly with the main food producing areas. Currently in China, food safety policies are not integrated with soil and water pollution management policies. Here, a comprehensive map of both soil and water pollution threats to food safety in China is presented and integrated policies addressing soil and water pollution for achieving food safety are suggested to provide a holistic approach