Clusters, distritos industriales y estrategia

This introductory paper opens the Special Issue on "Clusters, Industrial Districts and Strategy", based on the debate and comments arisen during the 2016 Conference on Clustering. After some brief notes on the need and the intended scope from a multidisciplinary approach (Regional Science, Economic Geography, Sociology and Business Management), we argue why the knowledge of the context is increasingly relevant for competing successfully in the global marketplace, since context-firm’s strategy is a two-way relationship. Cooperative efforts in the forms of clusters, industrial districts or agglomerations can spontaneously arise from a dense population of firms belonging to multiple industries or to the same and related industries along with public actors, or they can be a deliberative, planned and managed effort, which will require the intervention of a governance mode. Whatever the choice is, the result is not always the same. Accordingly, and in light of the pervading differences found across literature and papers presented in this Special Issue, it seems plausible that clustering can be idiosyncratic to the location. Further efforts should be devoted to find contingent recipes for fostering competitiveness in light of the context and the firms collaborating. At the end, we introduce the nine papers of this Special Issue, while encourage scholars to continue this academic conversation.Este artículo abre el Número Especial sobre "Clusters, Distritos Industriales y Estrategia", y está basado en el debate y comentarios recogidos durante la celebración del Congreso Clustering-2016. Tras unas notas breves sobre la necesidad y el alcance pretendido con este Número Especial y desde una aproximación multidisciplinar (Ciencia Regional, Geografía Económica, Sociología, Dirección de Empresas), argumentamos por qué el conocimiento del contexto es cada vez más relevante para competir con éxito en el mercado global, ya que el contextoestrategia de la empresa es una relación de doble sentido. Los esfuerzos cooperativos bajo la forma de clusters, distritos industriales o aglomeraciones pueden o bien surgir de manera espontánea a partir de una alta densidad de empresas que pertenecen a múltiples industrias o a la misma y relacionadas, conjuntamente con actores públicos, o bien pueden ser el fruto de un esfuerzo deliberativo, planeado y dirigido, lo cual necesitará la intervención de una forma de gobernanza. Sea cual sea la elección, el resultado no es siempre el mismo. Por consiguiente, y a la vista de las diferencias encontradas de manera extensiva en la literatura y los artículos de este Número Especial, parece plausible que el trabajo en red "clustering" pueda ser idiosincrático de la localización. Se deben dedicar más esfuerzos investigadores a encontrar recetas contingentes que promuevan la competitividad en función del contexto y cómo las empresas colaboran. Finalmente, presentamos los nueve artículos de este Número Especial, a la vez que animamos a los estudiosos para continuar esta conversación académica

Efectos de la crisis económica sobre el emprendimiento en empresas de economía social en España: un análisis espacial

En los últimos años, la desfavorable evolución de la coyuntura económica ha provocado intensos cambios estructurales y espaciales en la creación de empresas que cuestionan la validez de algunos supuestos básicos sobre dinámica emprendedora y desarrollo territorial. Por ello, el objetivo de este trabajo es analizar la existencia de patrones espaciales de creación de empresas de economía social en España y estudiar su evolución temporal durante dos etapas de intensos cambios: una de crecimiento (2002-2007) y otra de profunda crisis generalizada (2008-2013). A partir de la definición de un índice de agrupación de empresas de economía social aplicamos técnicas estadísticas basadas en econometría espacial (índice de Moran y LISA). Para tal fin se tomaron datos longitudinales del número de empresas creadas en España, durante el período 2002-2013, bajo las fórmulas de economía social y mercantil comparándose posteriormente a nivel autonómico. Su dinámica se analiza conjuntamente con el PIB regional como indicador del contexto económico. Los resultados más generales apuntan a que el patrón de expansión de la dinámica emprendedora en empresas de economía social es negativo y regionalmente heterogéneo, mostrando la existencia de algunas concentraciones espaciales, en lo que podrían denominarse Clusters de Empresas de Economía Social. A la vista de esos resultados y patrones se evidencia una erosión en la influencia de determinados factores de tipo contextual (tradición, cultura y normativa) en esa actividad emprendedora. Nuestras contribuciones tienen implicaciones para la academia y para los decisores de políticas públicas de apoyo a la creación de empresas y la economía social

A methodology for understanding the speed of internationalization process: The role of individual-level characteristics

This article presents a methodology that aims to explore how the decision-makers’ cognition affects the speed of internationalization. Managerial cognition is evaluated through the lens of the dual-process theory, which assumes that human information processing is made by two systems: (1) the intuitive and experiential cognitive system – System X, and (2) the rational and analytical cognitive system – System C. The speed of internationalization process is examined in terms of earliness (how soon after inception a firm enters in international markets) and post-internationalization speed (how fast a firm involves with new foreign markets after the first entry). This methodology has been put in practice in a multiple case study: the Portuguese footwear industry. The presence of some misalignments between our initial proposal and its implementation helped us to reshape and emphasize specific processes and behaviors associated to the methodology. The results suggest that, when making the decision about the first international entry, the decision-makers of the firms internationalizing earlier mostly relied on the intuitive cognitive system, while the decision-makers of the firm delaying the first entry showed a predominance of the rational cognitive system. However, regardless of being an early or later entrant, the sampled firms combine intuition with analysis to make the final decision about further involvements with foreign markets, resulting in a gradual and slower post-internationalization. Our in depth-analysis suggests that the Uppsala model could be questioned because the speed of internationalization process seems to be governed by how decision-makers perceive a given reality based on its cognition.N/

On causality between sucessful internationalization and profitability: The case of the moderating effect of earliness in new ventures

Objectives: We aim to explore whether the earliness of internationalization can change the direction of causality in the binomial internationalization-profitability. Theoretical Framework: The main theoretical explanation lies at the speed of the learning advantages of newness to address the contingent uncertainty of the (lack) of knowledge of the new international market, combining the Uppsala-Model and the International Entrepreneurship theories. Method: We performed a multigroup analysis using the most up-to-date technique among the available structural equation cross-lagged models for testing causality under the impulse-response approach. This enables the investigation of the long-term rather than the short-term Granger- Sims’ causal effects in a longitudinal data set of 1,258 new ventures over five years after the first international market entry. Results/Implications: Earliness of internationalization can be a key to understand both the sign and the direction of causality and its persistence over time. We augment the Uppsala Model with the causality of these relationships. For practitioners, they should know that the organizational time to go international can be a source of only temporary but not persistent advantages for early entrants.N/

How do managers behave? An analysis toward the cognitive configurations affecting Industry 4.0 adoption in international SMEs

Objectives: The adoption of Industry 4.0 (I4.0) in small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) often rests on its positive evaluation from managers, decision-makers, and entrepreneurs. Because of the mixed outcomes attainable through the SMEs’ openness to disruptive changes, managers must weigh the beneficial aspects of I4.0 adoption against the complexities, challenges, and drawbacks coming from its implementation. This study aims to shed light on the multifaceted nature of decision-making processes related to willingness or reluctance toward I4.0 adoption in international SMEs. Theoretical Framework: Our theorizing includes the dual-process theory (DPT) and complexity theory to explain the patterns of factors stimulating or constraining I4.0 implementation. Method: To test our propositions, we employ fuzzy-set Qualitative Comparative Analysis (fsQCA) on a sample of 157 managers and entrepreneurs working in international SMEs. Results/Implications: The results outline that decisional recipes associated with willingness to adopt I4.0 for internationalization are different than those associated with reluctance. This empirical evidence contributes to the “human side of I4.0” by providing reporting the specific combinations of cognitive and contextual factors of decision-makers in international SMEs concerning I4.0 practices.N/

Do firms internationalize because they are profitable or are firms profitable because they internationalize? Assessing the causality between internationalization and profitability in new ventures

International business (IB) theories, including the Uppsala model and the International Entrepreneurship (IE) perspective, have provided explanations linking the level of the firm’s international commitment to organizational performance and found a non-linear relationship. However, causality in that relationship is still a veiled story. The aim of this study is to explore how the organizational age at the time of the first international market entry can change the direction of causality in the binomial internationalization-profitability. We add arguments based upon on the earliness of internationalization (how soon after inception a venture becomes an international player) to suggest a more complex relationship in which financial performance provides feedback on the implementation of internationalization strategies in the form of resources, particularly in firms that start internationalizing at a later stage. This feedback generates both the knowledge and the slack resources needed to support an adaptative feedback during the post-internationalization process. Using the most up-to-date technique in structural equation modeling for testing causality, we performed a multigroup analysis investigating the long-term rather than shortterm causal associations between international commitment and profitability in a longitudinal data set of 1,258 new ventures over five years of post-internationalization. Our findings showed that past profits positively contribute to future internationalization attempts in late internationals, but neither that causality nor the reverse were proven for early internationalizing firms. This cross-lagged evidence, therefore, supports the need to extend IB theories by considering financial performance as an antecedent and not just an outcome of the degree of internationalization.info:eu-repo/semantics/draf

Looking back and looking forward: A multidisciplinary review of the speed of internationalization and future research directions

Objectives: An increasing amount of research on the speed of internationalization has shown that this concept has found application across multiple contexts. However, this straddling of multidisciplinary domains fragments the academic understanding on the topic. Considering the growing interest in the speed of internationalization, this study seeks to provide an overview of the trajectory and evolution of the research field. Theoretical Framework: Building upon the review of 200 articles published in Web of Science and Scopus indexed journals, this article develops a context-specific research agenda, whereas discloses the main theoretical approaches used so far. Method: We combined a Correspondence Analysis (CA) along with a Delphi study of prolific authors and practitioners working on the speed of internationalization, we provide a multidisciplinary academic literature. Results/Implications: Our findings offer a holistic picture of the current scholarly research, outlining its key theoretical approaches, research themes, levels of research, and potential areas for future development on this topic.N/

Do it or not? Explaining the complexity of decision-making processes for Industry 4.0 adoption in international SMEs

The adoption of Industry 4.0 (I4.0) in small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) often rests on its positive evaluation from managers, decision-makers, and entrepreneurs. Because of the mixed outcomes attainable through the SMEs’ openness to disruptive changes, managers must weigh the beneficial aspects of I4.0 against the complexities, challenges, and drawbacks coming from its implementation. Drawing upon the tenets of the dual-process theory (DPT), this study highlights the cognitive configurations leading to managerial willingness (or reluctance) to adopt I4.0. This is done by investigating perceptions about the international markets in terms of risk and uncertainty, and by assessing organizational stimuli to openness, such as the explorative and exploitative orientations (i.e., ambidexterity), in combination with decision-makers’ cognitive systems. To shed further light on observed heterogenous outcomes, this study explores the managerial willingness (or reluctance) towards I4.0 adoption among 157 managers working in international SMEs. The results of combined Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) and fuzzy-set Qualitative Comparative Analysis (fsQCA) outline different decisional paths associated with willingness and reluctance to adopt I4.0 for internationalization. This empirical evidence, therefore, contributes to the “human side of I4.0” by providing fruitful implications about cognitive configurations of decision-makers in international SMEs concerning I4.0 practices.N/

The earlier the better? A microfoundational perspective of international explorative and exploitative capabilities in the transition of SMEs to Industry 4.0

The international exploration-exploitation dichotomy is used in this study to expand on the resource-based view (RBV) and gain a deeper understanding of how these two distinct capabilities affect the adoption of I4.0 in small and medium-sized businesses (SMEs). We investigate managers' cognitive systems as a crucial microfoundation for the international organizational ambidexterity (i.e., exploration-exploitation), given that both managerial cognition and microfoundations perspective are underdeveloped and undertheorized. The study shows that managerial cognition is a crucial microfoundation of international organizational ambidexterity in the context of I4.0 adoption by using structural equation modeling on a sample of 116 Portuguese international SMEs. The findings also reveal neither international exploration nor exploitation has succeeded in creating new opportunities for the application of a technology-based model in SMEs internationalizing earlier. However, a post-hoc analysis revealed that under early internationalization, less (more) experienced SMEs benefit from international exploration (exploitation) to implement I4.0 technologies. This study concludes with implications and future research avenues.N/

Internationalization process and decision-making: An approach through the lens of the manager cognition

The influence of several environmental and organizational factors on the decision making process of international business-IB have been extensively investigated over the last decades. However, the micro-foundations of the cognitive features of the decision maker and their impact on the organization’s strategic decisions are still an unexplored area when discussing the process of internationalization. In this paper, this internationalization process decision making is examined under the umbrella of the intertwined relations between environment, organization and manager’s cognitive style. The aim of this paper is to reflect of the role of the manager’s cognitive style on the process of filtering information from the international business environment in order to create better internationalization strategic decisions. Under the socio-cognitive approach of the dual-process theory, this study explores the role of System-X (emotional, intuitive, automatic reasoning) and System-C (analytical, conscious, deliberate reasoning) on the IB decision making process. Finally, we open future research avenues for digging deeper in the multileveled association between IB environmental features, organization, manager’s cognitive style and internationalization mode.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio