Do We Need a Global Commercial Code?

The International Institute for the Unification of Private Law (UNIDROIT) first launched the idea of preparing a code of inter- national trade law. In 1970, the Secretariat of UNIDROIT submitted a note to the newly established United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) in justification of such an initiative and indicated some of the salient features of the project. What was proposed was a veritable code in the continental sense. The proposed code included two parts: part one dealing with the law of obligations generally, and part two relating to specific kinds of commercial transactions. However, the “Progressive codification of international trade law” project was never given absolute priority. The “Progressive codification” was hampered by UNIDROIT’s other commitments and limited resources and by continued skepticism as to the project’s feasibility. Years later, the scope of the project was substantially altered and work then focused on the preparation of what is now known as the “Principles of International Commercial Contracts.” The Secretary of UNCITRAL has recently proposed the “Global Commercial Code,” which is something very different from the original UNIDROIT proposal. Rather, it resumes work on a “world code of international trade law” advocated by Clive M. Schmitthoff some twenty years ago. The “Global Commercial Code” is similar to Schmitthoff’s proposal in that it is conceived as an open-ended instrument intended “to weld together . . . into a logical, integrated work,” existing and future uniform laws in the field of international trade law. It is by no means a coincidence that this idea has reemerged. The last two decades have seen the world-wide success of the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG) and also the adoption of additional international uniform laws dealing with topics within specific areas such as transport law, banking law, arbitration, e-commerce, and bankruptcy. The proliferation of specific uniform laws makes the idea of combining these specific pieces into a unified whole more compelling. Since most of the recently adopted instruments have been prepared under the auspices of UNCITRAL, its Secretary has taken the initiative to re-open discussion on the codification of international trade law. The General Assembly of the United Nations gave UN- CITRAL the formal mandate “[to] further the progressive harmonization and unification of international trade by: (a) coordinating the work of Organizations active in this field and encouraging cooperation among them.” Obviously, it is beyond the scope of this comment to address all the questions raised by a far-reaching project like the proposed codification of international trade law. Instead, I will concentrate on two main aspects: one, the kind of code envisaged and two, the relationship between the code and the general contract law

Effect of prosocial public health messages for population behaviour change in relation to respiratory infections: a systematic review protocol.

INTRODUCTION: The COVID-19 pandemic represents a major societal challenge that requires large-scale behaviour change, widespread collective action and cooperation to reduce viral transmission. Existing literature indicates that several messaging approaches may be effective, including emphasising the benefits to the recipient, aligning with the recipient's moral values and focusing on protecting others. Current research suggests that prosocial public health messages that highlight behaviours linked to societal benefits (eg, protecting 'each other'), rather than focusing on behaviours that protect oneself (eg, protecting 'yourself'), may be a more effective method for communicating strategies related to infectious disease. To investigate this we will conduct a systematic review that will identify what messages and behaviour change techniques have the potential to optimise the effect on population behaviour in relation to reducing transmission of respiratory infections. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: A systematic literature search of published and unpublished studies (including grey literature) in electronic databases will be conducted to identify those that meet our inclusion criteria. The search will be run in four electronic databases: MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO and Scopus. We will also conduct supplementary searches in databases of 'grey' literature such as PsycEXTRA, Social Science Research Network and OSF PREPRINTS, and use the Google Scholar search engine. A systematic approach to searching, screening, reviewing and data extraction will be applied based on Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses. Titles, abstracts and full texts for eligibility will be examined independently by researchers. The quality of the included studies will be assessed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool and the Risk of Bias in Non-randomized Studies-of Interventions tool. Disagreements will be resolved by a consensus procedure. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: This protocol has been registered with PROSPERO. No ethical approval is required, as there will be no collection of primary data. The synthesised findings will be disseminated through peer-reviewed publication. PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER: CRD42020198874

An evidence-based theory of change for reducing SARS-CoV-2 transmission in reopened schools

Schools have closed worldwide as part of measures to prevent SARS-CoV-2 transmission but are beginning to reopen in some countries. Various measures are being pursued to minimise transmission but existing guidance has not developed a comprehensive framework or theory of change. We present a framework informed by the occupational health hierarchy of control and a theory of change informed by realist approaches. We present measures focused on elimination, substitution, engineering, administration, education and personal protective equipment. We theorise that such measures offer a means of disrupting SARS-CoV-2 transmission via routes involving fomites, faeco-oral routes, droplets and aerosols

Public understanding of COVID-19 antibody testing and test results: A qualitative study conducted in the U.K. early in the pandemic.

BACKGROUND: During the COVID-19 pandemic, antibody testing was proposed by several countries as a surveillance tool to monitor the spread of the virus and potentially to ease restrictions. In the UK, antibody testing originally formed the third pillar of the UK Government's COVID-19 testing programme and was thought to offer hope that those with a positive antibody test result could return to normal life. However, at that time scientists and the public had little understanding of the longevity of COVID-19 antibodies, and whether they provided immunity to reinfection or transmission of the virus. OBJECTIVE: This paper explores the UK public's understanding of COVID-19 testing, perceived test accuracy, the meaning of a positive test result, willingness to adhere to restrictive measures in response to an antibody test result and how they expect other people to respond. METHODS: On-line synchronous focus groups were conducted in April/May 2020 during the first wave of the pandemic and the most stringent period of the COVID-19 restrictive measures. Data were analysed thematically. RESULTS: There was confusion in responses as to whether those with a positive or negative test should return to work and which restrictive measures would apply to them or their household members. Participants raised concerns about the wider public response to positive antibody test results and the adverse behavioural effects. There were worries that antibody tests could create a divided society particularly if those with a positive test result were given greater freedoms or chose to disregard the restrictive measures. CONCLUSION: Should these tests be offered more widely, information should be developed in consultation with the public to ensure clarity and address uncertainty about test results and subsequent behaviours

Do school closures and school reopenings affect community transmission of COVID-19? A systematic review of observational studies

Objectives: To systematically reivew the observational evidence of the effect of school closures and school reopenings on SARS-CoV-2 community transmission. Setting: Schools (including early years settings, primary schools and secondary schools). Intervention: School closures and reopenings. Outcome measure: Community transmission of SARS-CoV-2 (including any measure of community infections rate, hospital admissions or mortality attributed to COVID-19). Methods: On 7 January 2021, we searched PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, CINAHL, the WHO Global COVID-19 Research Database, ERIC, the British Education Index, the Australian Education Index and Google, searching title and abstracts for terms related to SARS-CoV-2 AND terms related to schools or non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs). We used the Cochrane Risk of Bias In Non-randomised Studies of Interventions tool to evaluate bias. Results: We identified 7474 articles, of which 40 were included, with data from 150 countries. Of these, 32 studies assessed school closures and 11 examined reopenings. There was substantial heterogeneity between school closure studies, with half of the studies at lower risk of bias reporting reduced community transmission by up to 60% and half reporting null findings. The majority (n=3 out of 4) of school reopening studies at lower risk of bias reported no associated increases in transmission. Conclusions: School closure studies were at risk of confounding and collinearity from other non-pharmacological interventions implemented around the same time as school closures, and the effectiveness of closures remains uncertain. School reopenings, in areas of low transmission and with appropriate mitigation measures, were generally not accompanied by increasing community transmission. With such varied evidence on effectiveness, and the harmful effects, policymakers should take a measured approach before implementing school closures; and should look to reopen schools in times of low transmission, with appropriate mitigation measures

CISG Advisory Council Opinion No. 19: Standards and Conformity of the Goods under Article 35 CISG

The CISG-AC started as a private initiative supported by the Institute of International Commercial Law at Pace University School of Law and the Centre for Commercial Law Studies, Queen Mary, University of London. The International Sales Convention Advisory Council (CISGAC) is in place to support the understanding of the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG) and the promotion and assistance in the uniform interpretation of the CISG. This is the CISG Advisory Council's Opinion No. 19 on Standards and Conformity of the Goods under Article 35 CIS

Internet-based randomised controlled trials for the evaluation of complementary and alternative medicines: probiotics in spondyloarthropathy

<b>Background</b> The clinical effectiveness of complementary and alternative medicines (CAMs) is widely debated because of a lack of clinical trials. The internet may provide an effective and economical approach for undertaking randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of low-risk interventions. We investigated whether the internet could be used to perform an internet-based RCT of a CAM fulfilling the revised CONSORT (Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials) statement quality checklist for reporting of RCTs. A secondary aim was to examine the effect of probiotics compared to placebo in terms of well-being over 12 weeks.<p></p> <b>Methods</b> People aged ≥18 years with confirmed spondyloarthropathy living in the United Kingdom with internet access were invited to participate in an internet-based RCT of probiotic compared to placebo for improving well-being and bowel symptoms. The intervention was a probiotic containing 4 strains of live bacteria or identical placebo taken by mouth daily for 3 months. The primary outcome measure was the performance of the trial according to the revised CONSORT statement.<p></p> <b>Results</b> 147 people were randomised into the trial. The internet-based trial of the CAM fulfilled the revised CONSORT statement such as efficient blinding, allocation concealment, intention to treat analysis and flow of participants through the trial. Recruitment of the required number of participants was completed in 19 months. Sixty-five percent (96/147) completed the entire 3 months of the trial. The trial was low cost and demonstrated that in an intention to treat analysis, probiotics did not improve well-being or bowel symptoms.<p></p> <b>Conclusion</b> The internet-based RCT proved to be a successful and economical method for examining this CAM intervention. Recruitment, adherence and completion rate were all similar to those reported with conventional RCTs but at a fraction of the cost. Internet-based RCTs can fulfil all the criteria of the revised CONSORT statement and are an appropriate method for studying low-risk interventions