The Influence of Land-use Activities on Nutrient Inputs into Upland Catchment Streams, Ghana

In Ghana, increasing agricultural productivity is seen as an essential component of most development programs. The main objective of this study was to assess the implications of increased land-use activities on in-stream nutrients and impacts on the quality of water for domestic use and on aquatic ecosystem health. To guide the evaluation of the land-water interlinkage, the conceptual structure defined by the DPCER (Driving forces-Pressure-Chemical state-Ecological state-Response) framework was used, which is an adapted version of the traditional DPSIR (Driving forces-Pressure-State-Impact-Response) model. The study compares three small upland sub-catchments in the same geo-morphologic Ofin Basin of the Ahafo-Ano South District. Based on the percentage cover of natural land to agricultural land, the catchments were categorized as low (Nyamebekyere), medium (Dunyankwanta), and high (Attakrom) land-use intensities. With simple mathematical tools and selected indicators, the performance of each link within the DPCER framework was evaluated, and with the comparison of each set of indicators between catchments, changes as a function of land-use intensity were assessed. Despite overall minimal fertilizer use in Ghana, there were significant differences between the sub-catchments regarding the proportion of farmers who applied fertilizers. Attakrom showed the highest numbers of farmers (20.5%) as compared to Dunyankwanta (12.3%) and Nyamebekyere (0.0%), with applications mainly to cash crops such as cocoa and maize. Simple logistic regression explained that fertilizer use was considerably influenced by the farmer’s access to services such as farm loans and agricultural extension services, in addition to property rights and residential status. The Beale’s Ratio method, used to calculate the total annual load (kg yr-1) and yield (kg ha-1) for major nutrients (Ca, K, Mg, Na, NO3-N, NH4-N, and PO4-P), showed that the highest nutrient export was from Dunyankwanta at a relative magnitude of up to 3-fold the values of the other two catchments. The annual water yield was highest in Dunyankwanta (79.91 mm yr-1) as compared to Nyamebekyere (41.33 mm yr-1) and Attakrom (22.87 mm yr-1). Total annual water yield was the main determinant of the total nutrient loads/yields, and ranged between 2.3% and 6.2% of the total annual precipitation. 48-hour grab water samples confirmed that in-stream nutrient concentrations increased with increasing land-use intensity, with significant differences between catchments for the major cations (Ca, Mg, K and Na). Median values for all nutrients were in the optimal range of the Ghana Target Water Quality Range (TWQR) for domestic use and for aquatic ecosystem health. The distribution of macroinvertebrate taxa as a function of stream chemistry also showed significant differences in the ecological states of the upland catchment streams. The DPCER framework with a comparative catchment component was an effective methodology for describing changes as land-use intensifies. Water yield is important in estimating total nutrient export, and the inclusion of a hydrological component in the DPCER framework is proposed - to form a DHPCER model (Driving forces-Hydrology-Pressure-Chemical state-Ecological state-Response). The significant differences observed in each component of the framework strongly suggest anthropogenic influence. With Ghana’s objectives for increased agricultural productivity, the results of this study demonstrate the need for incorporating integrated water resource management into development agendas.Die Auswirkungen der zunehmenden Landnutzung auf die Nährstoffe in den Flussaufwärtsläufen in Ghana In Ghana wird eine Steigerung der landwirtschaftlichen Produktivität als notwendiger Bestandteil der meisten Entwicklungsprogramme betrachtet. Das Hauptziel dieser Studie ist die Bewertung der Auswirkungen der zunehmenden Landnutzungsaktivitäten auf die Nährstoffe in den Wasserläufen sowie auf die Qualität des Wassers für den häuslichen Gebrauch und der Wasserökosysteme. Um die Ermittelung der Land-Wasser-Zusammenhänge zu unterstützen, wurde das DPCER-Modell (Driving forces-Pressure-Chemical state-Ecological state-Response) eingesetzt, eine überarbeitete Version des traditionellen DPSIR- Modells (Driving forces-Pressure-State-Impact-Response). Die Studie vergleicht drei kleine Wassereinzugsgebiete im Hochland im gleichen geo-morphologischen Becken im Ahafo-Ano South Distrikt. Auf der Grundlage des Anteils von Land mit natürlicher Vegetationsbedeckung im Vergleich zu landwirtschaftlichen Flächen wurden diese drei Bereiche klassifiziert als Gebiete mit niedriger (Nyamebekyere), mittlerer (Dunyankwanta) bzw. hoher (Attakrom) Landnutzungsintensität. Mit einfachen mathematischen tools und ausgewählten Indikatoren wurde die Leistung jeder Verknüpfung innerhalb des DPCER bewertet und die Veränderungen als Funktion von Landnutzungsintensität durch den Vergleich der einzelnen Indikatorgruppen der Einzugsgebiete bestimmt. Trotz einem insgesamt geringen Verbrauch von Dünger in Ghana zeigen sich signifikante Unterschiede zwischen den drei Gebieten in Bezug auf den Anteil der Farmer, die Dünger benutzten. In Attakrom war die Anzahl der Farmer am höchsten (20.5%) verglichen mit Dunyankwanta (12.3%) und Nyamebekyere (0.0%), wobei der Dünger hauptsächlich beim Anbau von Cash Crops wie Kakao und Mais eingesetzt wurde. Die einfache logistische Regression deutet daraufhin, dass der Gebrauch von Dünger stark durch den Zugang der Farmer zu, z.B., Krediten und landwirtschaftlicher Beratung beeinflusst wird sowie durch Landbesitzrechte und Wohnstatus. Die Beale’s Ratio-Methode, die für die Berechnung der jährlichen Gesamtmenge (kg Jahr-1) und Menge per Hektar (kg ha-1) der wichtigsten Nährstoffe (Ca, K, Mg, Na, NO3-N, NH4-N, and PO4-P) eingesetzt wurde, zeigt den höchsten Nährstoffexport aus Dunyankwanta mit einem relativen Wert von bis zu dreimal der Werte der anderen beiden Gebiete. Der jährliche Wasservolumen per Hektar war am höchsten in Dunyankwanta (79.91 mm Jahr-1) verglichen mit Nyamebekyere (41.33 mm Jahr-1) und Attakrom (22.87 mm Jahr-1). Dieser Wert war der Hauptfaktor bei der Bestimmung der Gesamtnährstoffe und lag zwischen 2.3% und 6.2% des jährlichen Niederschlags. Die Ergebnisse der 48-stündlichen Wasserproben (grab sampler) bestätigen, dass die Nährstoffkonzentrationen in den Wasserläufen mit der Landnutzungsintensität steigen mit signifikanten Unterschieden zwischen den Einzugsgebieten bei den wichtigsten Kationen (Ca, Mg, K und Na). Die mittleren Werte für alle Nährstoffe waren im optimalen Bereich der Ghana Target Water Quality Range (TWQR - Qualitätsgrenzwerte) für Haushaltswasser und Wasserökosysteme. Die Verteilung der Taxa der Makrowirbellosen, die von den chemischen Zusammensetzungen der Flüsse beeinflusst ist, zeigte signifikante Unterschiede im ökologischen Zustand der Einzugsgebiete im Hochland. Das DPCER Modell mit einer Komponente zum Vergleich der Einzugsgebiete ist eine effektive Methode zur Beschreibung der Veränderungen als Folge von zunehmender Landnutzungsintensität. Der Wasservolumen per Hektar ist wichtig bei der Ermittlung des gesamten Nährstoffexports; die Einbeziehung einer hydrologischen Komponente im DPCER zur Bildung eines DHPCER Modells (Driving forces-Hydrology-Pressure-Chemical state-Ecological state-Response) wird vorgeschlagen. Die beobachteten signifikanten Unterschiede deuten stark auf menschlichen Einfluss hin. Ghana hat eine Steigerung der landwirtschaftlichen Produktivität zum Ziel und die Ergebnisse dieser Studie zeigen, dass es notwendig ist, integriertes Wassermanagement bei Entwicklungsprogrammen hierbei zu berücksichtigen

Social Differences in the Vulnerability and Adaptation Patterns among Smallholder Farmers: Evidence from Lawra District in the Upper West Region of Ghana.

There is growing attention on socially differentiated stakeholder groups in understanding vulnerability and adaptation to climate change. However, empirical research on smallholder farmers in Ghana has not paid adequate attention to social differentiation among smallholder farmers. This study sought to assess the perception of vulnerability and adaptation strategies of socially differentiated groups of smallholder farmers to climate change in Lawra district, north-western Ghana. Gender and age axis of social differentiation are the major focus of this work. The study employed a mix method study design involving 8 FGDs and 160 questionnaire surveys among smallholder farmers. Kendell’s W rank correlation was used to rank constrains identified, descriptive statistics and chi-square was used to determine adaptation patterns among different social groups. Results suggest that, smallholder farmers are not homogenous. Rather, males and females and youth and older folks differ in their perception of vulnerability and subsequent adaptation strategies. The results highlight the need for adaptation interventions that pay attention to different stakeholder needs in reducing smallholder farmers’ vulnerability. Key words: social differentiation, smallholders, adaptation, vulnerability, age, gender

Exploring methodological approaches to assess climate change vulnerability and adaptation: reflections from using life history approaches

People in developing countries face multiple risks, and their response decisions sit at the complex and often opaque interface of climatic stressors, constrained resource access, and changing livelihoods, social structures, and personal aspirations. Many risk management studies use a well-established toolkit of methodologies—household surveys, focus group discussions, and semi-structured interviews. We argue that such methodological conservatism tends to neglect the dynamic and differentiated nature of livelihood decisions. Since different methodologies privilege different portrayals of risk and response, we highlight how plural methodological approaches can capture a broader range of perspectives and problematisations. In this paper, we draw on life history (LH) interviews across four countries (Kenya, Namibia, Ghana, and India) to offer one way of expanding current methodological approaches on vulnerability and adaptation. We argue that LHs offer four key ‘value additions’. First, LHs give insights into the multiple and interacting nature of drivers of response behaviour. Second, they highlight intra-household dynamics to demonstrate how people with differential power shape risk management decisions. Third, LHs support explorations of past decisions, present situations, and future aspirations, thus producing temporally nuanced enquiries. Fourth, they provide a powerful analytical lens to capture the interplay of motivations, aspirations, and values on livelihood choices and adaptation outcomes. By adding value in these four ways, LHs challenge assumptions about how and why people respond to multiple risks and offer a nuanced understanding of adaptation processes

Review of adaptation related policies in Ghana WT6.1.2

This series is based on the work of the Deltas, Vulnerability and Climate Change: Migration and Adaptation (DECCMA) project, funded by Canada’s International Development Research Centre (IDRC) and the UK’s Department for International Development (DFID) through the Collaborative Adaptation Research Initiative in Africa and Asia (CARIAA).Ghana, as a signatory to international requirements of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol, has recognized the risks of global warming to its economy and has committed to take appropriate responsive actions through national policies and plans. In addition to its two key adaptation policy documents, National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy (NCCAS), 2012, and the National Climate Change Policy, 2014, there are a number of other national documents that provide complementary adaptive actions for prioritized sectors. This study provides a critical review of identified national policies and plans that are relevant for responding to climate change

Transformation in adaptation : learning from ASSAR’s Regional diagnostic studies

This series is based on work funded by Canada’s International Development Research Centre (IDRC) and the UK’s Department for International Development (DFID) through the Collaborative Adaptation Research Initiative in Africa and Asia (CARIAA).This paper commences with a background discussion of the terms associated with transformation, draws on this to build a conceptual framework for comparing activities, highlights a range of activities from the regions that could be classified in different ways as embodying transformation, and reflects on some of their implications and complexities

Report on 1st round of stakeholder engagement, D 1.1.3

This series is based on the work of the Deltas, Vulnerability and Climate Change: Migration and Adaptation (DECCMA) project, funded by Canada’s International Development Research Centre (IDRC) and the UK’s Department for International Development (DFID) through the Collaborative Adaptation Research Initiative in Africa and Asia (CARIAA).The description of work for Work Package 1 envisages four separate rounds of stakeholder engagement. This report presents the activities undertaken as part of the first round of stakeholder engagements. The activities conducted under Work Package one aimed at engaging with stakeholders at the national and the district level. Community engagement was done by Work Package 3 and will not be covered in this report. The engagement activities were therefore a mix of workshops, inviting a range of stakeholders from the national policy level, as well as stakeholders from the district level which took place in the case study areas: Bangladesh (Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GBM) delta); Ghana (Volta delta); and in India (GBM and Mahanadi deltas). This synthesis report combines the individual reports produced by country teams for each of the engagement events held in each case study area

Vertical integration for climate change adaptation in the water sector:lessons from decentralisation in Africa and India

Vertical integration, which creates strategic linkages between national and sub-national levels, is being promoted as important for climate change adaptation. Decentralisation, which transfers authority and responsibility to lower levels of organisation, serves a similar purpose and has been in place for a number of decades. Based on four case studies in semi-arid regions in Africa and India, this paper argues that vertical integration for climate change adaptation should reflect on lessons from decentralisation related to governing natural resources, particularly in the water sector. The paper focuses on participation and flexibility, two central components of climate change adaptation, and considers how decentralisation has enhanced or undermined these. The findings suggest that vertical integration for adaptation will be strengthened if a number of lessons are considered, namely (i) actively seek equitable representation from marginal and diverse local groups drawing on both formal and informal participation structures, (ii) assess and address capacity deficits that undermine flexibility and adaptive responses, especially within lower levels of government, and (iii) use hybrid modes of governance that include government, intermediaries and diverse local actors through both formal and informal institutions to improve bottom-up engagement

Social differences in the vulnerability and adaptation patterns among smallholder farmers : evidence from lawra district in the upper west region of Ghana

Research on smallholder farmers in Ghana has paid inadequate attention to social differentiation among smallholder farmers. This study assesses the perception of vulnerability and climate change adaptation strategies of socially differentiated groups of smallholder farmers in Lawra district. Results suggest that smallholder farmers are not homogenous. Rather, males and females and youth and older folks differ in their perception of vulnerability and subsequent adaptation strategies. Results of perceptions drawn from focus group discussions are tabled and compared as “Hazards faced by smallholder farmers.

An investigation of the evidence of benefits from climate compatible development

Climate change is likely to have profound effects on developing countries both through the climate impacts experienced, but also through the policies, programmes and projects adopted to address climate change. Climate change mitigation (actions taken to reduce the extent of climate change), adaptation (actions taken to ameliorate the impacts), and on-going development are all critical to reduce current and future losses associated with climate change, and to harness gains. In the context of limited resources to invest in climate change, policies, programmes, or projects that deliver ‘triple wins’ (i.e. generating climate adaptation, mitigation and development benefits) – also known as climate compatible development – are increasingly discussed by bilateral and multilateral donors. Yet there remains an absence of empirical evidence of the benefits and costs of triple win policies. The purpose of this paper is therefore to assess evidence of ‘triple wins’ on the ground, and the feasibility of triple wins that do not generate negative impacts. We describe the theoretical linkages that exist between adaptation, mitigation and development, as well as the trade-offs and synergies that might exist between them. Using four developing country studies, we make a simple assessment of the extent of climate compatible development policy in practice through the lens of ‘no-regrets’, ‘low regrets’ and ‘with regrets’ decision making. The lack of evidence of either policy or practice of triple wins significantly limits the capacity of donors to identify, monitor or evaluate ‘triple wins at this point in time. We recommend a more strategic assessment of the distributional and financial implications of 'triple wins' policies

Adaptation to climate change or non-climatic stressors in semi-arid regions? Evidence of gender differentiation in three agrarian districts of Ghana

This work was carried out under the Adaptation at Scale in Semi-Arid Regions project(ASSAR). ASSAR is one of five reserarch programs funded under the Collaborative Adaptation Reseasrch Initiative in African and Asisa (CARIAA), with financial support from the UK Government's Department for International Development (DfID) and the International Development Research Centre (IDRC),Canada (107640-001).The views expressed in this work are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of DfID and IDRC or its Board of Governors. Special thanks go to the Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) projects secretariat in Ghana for the support in linking our research with the CCAFS district platform chairpersons. We also would like to acknowledge the support of Stephen Omari in fieldwork data collection as well as chairpersons of CCAFS district platforms.We are also grateful to the anonymous reviewers for their comments.With the increasing impacts of climate change in Africa, a relationship between rainfall and yields in semi-arid Ghana has been observed. Drawing insights from three agrarian societies in the semi-arid region of Ghana using qualitative research methods, the study reports how people currently deal with climate variability as insight on how they will deal with climate change in the future. The findings indicate wide gender inequality in decision making processes and land access resulting from patriarchal local customs and institutions that shape adaptation responses of different vulnerable social groups to climatic or non-climatic stressors. Different adaptation practices of groups indicate that both climatic and non-climatic stressors shape the kind of responses that groups adopt. From the current adaptation practices, efforts to improve adaptation to future climate change at local levels must give attention to the nexus of both climatic and non-climatic stressors, gender, differential vulnerabilities and other subjectivities that produce a particular adaptation practice in a given place