Domain and range of the CIECAM16 forward transformation

The domain and range of the CIECAM16 forward transformation was numerically determined and visualized for CIE standard illuminants, using a linear programming approach that provides the gamuts and colour solids for optimum colours. The effect of the surround, adapting luminance, and luminance of the background on the range of the CIECAM16 forward transformation were individually analyzed, showing that their ranges increased when the surround changed from dark to dim or average, the adapting luminance increased, or the luminance of the background decreased. The proposed methodology for the determination and visualization of the domain and range of the CIECAM16 forward transformation can be used for any illuminant, as well as for CIECAM02, CAM16, CAM02-UCS and CAM16-UCS. The findings of this paper not only solve the long-term unresolved domain and range problems of the CIE colour appearance models, but also find applications in cross-media colour reproduction. Furthermore, it was also found that some non-CIE colours are inside the International Color Consortium Profile Connection Space (ICC PCS), and some CIE colours are not included in that space.National Natural Science Foundation of China (61575090, 61775169)Department of Education of Liaoning Province (LJKQZ2021127, LJKZ0291, LJKZ0310)University of Science and Technology Liaoning (2021YQ04, LKDYC202103)Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (PID2019-107816GB-I00/SRA/10.13039/501100011033

Optimizing Color-Difference Formulas for 3D-Printed Objects

Based on previous visual assessments of 440 color pairs of 3D-printed samples, we tested the performance of eight color-difference formulas (CIELAB, CIEDE2000, CAM02-LCD, CAM02-SCD, CAM02-UCS, CAM16-LCD, CAM16-SCD, and CAM16-UCS) using the standardized residual sum of squares (STRESS) index. For the whole set of 440 color pairs, the introduction of kL (lightness parametric factor), b (exponent in total color difference), and kL + b produced an average STRESS decrease of 2.6%, 26.9%, and 29.6%, respectively. In most cases, the CIELAB formula was significantly worse statistically than the remaining seven formulas, for which no statistically significant differences were found. Therefore, based on visual results using 3D-object colors with the specific shape, size, gloss, and magnitude of color differences considered here, we concluded that the CIEDE2000, CAM02-, and CAM16-based formulas were equivalent and thus cannot recommend only one of them. Disregarding CIELAB, the average STRESS decreases in the kL + b-optimized formulas from changes in each one of the four analyzed parametric factors were not statistically significant and had the following values: 6.2 units changing from color pairs with less to more than 5.0 CIELAB units; 2.9 units changing the shape of the samples (lowest STRESS values for cylinders); 0.7 units changing from nearly-matte to high-gloss samples; and 0.5 units changing from 4 cm to 2 cm samples.Beijing Institute of Graphic Communication BIGC Ec202003 BIGC Ec202102 BIGC Ec202302Ministry of Science and Innovation of the National Government of Spain PID2019-107816GB-I00/SR

Optimizing Parametric Factors in CIELAB and CIEDE2000 Color-Difference Formulas for 3D-Printed Spherical Objects

The current color-difference formulas were developed based on 2D samples and there is no standard guidance for the color-difference evaluation of 3D objects. The aim of this study was to test and optimize the CIELAB and CIEDE2000 color-difference formulas by using 42 pairs of 3D-printed spherical samples in Experiment I and 40 sample pairs in Experiment II. Fifteen human observers with normal color vision were invited to attend the visual experiments under simulated D65 illumination and assess the color differences of the 82 pairs of 3D spherical samples using the gray-scale method. The performances of the CIELAB and CIEDE2000 formulas were quantified by the STRESS index and F-test with respect to the collected visual results and three different optimization methods were performed on the original color-difference formulas by using the data from the 42 sample pairs in Experiment I. It was found that the optimum parametric factors for CIELAB were kL = 1.4 and kC = 1.9, whereas for CIEDE2000, kL = 1.5. The visual data of the 40 sample pairs in Experiment II were used to test the performance of the optimized formulas and the STRESS values obtained for CIELAB/CIEDE2000 were 32.8/32.9 for the original formulas and 25.3/25.4 for the optimized formulas. The F-test results indicated that a significant improvement was achieved using the proposed optimization of the parametric factors applied to both color-difference formulas for 3D-printed spherical samples.ApPEARS (Appearance Printing European Advanced Research School) European Commission 814158Spanish GovernmentEuropean Commission PID2019-107816GB-I00/SRA/10.13039/50110001103

Color de aceites de oliva virgen extra enriquecidos con carotenoides procedentes de microalgas: influencia de la exposición a la radiación ultravioleta y al calentamiento

A carotenoid-rich extract containing 2.5 mg/mL of lutein and 3.3 mg/mL of β-carotene from the microalga Scenedesmus almeriensis was added to ten extra virgin olive oils from four Spanish cultivars with differing degrees of ripeness, obtaining carotenoid enriched oils with lutein and β-carotene concentrations of 0.082 and 0.11 mg/mL, respectively. Extra virgin olive oils enriched with carotenoids from microalgae were studied by analyzing the effect on color of three different treatments: ultraviolet exposure, microwave heating and immersion bath heating. The methodology was designed to simulate, in controlled laboratory conditions, the effects of household treatments. Spectrophotometric color measurements were then performed to monitor color changes in the enriched and non-enriched extra virgin olive oil samples. Enriched oils are much more chromatic, darker and redder than natural oils. After 55 days UV irradiation, 40 min microwave heating, and 72 hours thermostatic heating, the average color differences for natural/enriched extra virgin olive oils were 98/117, 15/9 and 57/28 CIELAB units, respectively. In general, increasing temperature and ultraviolet exposure produced higher CIELAB color differences in the non-enriched samples. The addition of microalga extracts to extra virgin olive oils was found to induce some color stability and may constitute a future way of increasing the daily intake of beneficial bioactive compounds such as carotenoids.Añadimos un extracto rico en carotenoides, que contiene 2,5 mg/mL de luteína y 3,3 mg/mL de β-caroteno, procedente de la microalga Scenedesmus almeriensis, a diez aceites de oliva virgen extra de cuatro variedades con diferentes grados de maduración, obteniéndose aceites enriquecidos en carotenoides con concentraciones de luteína y β-caroteno de 0,082 y 0,11 mg/mL respectivamente. Se han estudiado aceites de oliva virgen extra enriquecidos con carotenoides procedentes de microalgas, estudiando el efecto producido sobre el color de los mismos como consecuencia de irradiación ultravioleta, calentamiento en microondas y en baño termostático, reproduciendo en el laboratorio los efectos de los tratamientos domésticos. Se ha determinado el color para monitorizar los cambios de las muestras control y enriquecidas de los diferentes aceites. Los aceites enriquecidos son mucho más cromáticos, oscuros y rojizos que los naturales. Tras 55 días de irradiación UV, 40 minutos de calentamiento por microondas y 72 horas de calentamiento termostático, las diferencias medias de color para los aceites de oliva virgen extra naturales/enriquecidos fueron de 98/117, 15/9 y 57/28 unidades CIELAB, respectivamente. En término generales, el incremento en la temperatura y la exposición a la radiación ultravioleta produce diferencias de color más grandes en las muestras no enriquecidas. El enriquecimiento de los aceites virgen extra con extractos procedentes de microalgas, induce estabilidad en el color y puede constituir una vía para incrementar la ingesta diaria de compuestos bioactivos beneficiosos como son los carotenoides.University of JaenCastillo de Canena Olive Juice companyMinistry of Science and Innovation of the National Government of Spain PID2019107816GB-I00 / AEI / 10.13039/50110001103

Identification of iron in Earth analogues of Martian phyllosilicates using visible reflectance spectroscopy: Spectral derivatives and color parameters

A range of phyllosilicate compositions have been detected spectroscopically on Mars, but the largest fraction by far corresponds to clay minerals rich in Fe and Mg. Given that most of our understanding of Martian clays comes from remote sensing data, it is critically important to explore the details of how compositional variation affects spectral features of phyllosilicates. The greatest efforts have focused so far on near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy. Recently, ambiguities have been detected in the NIR spectra of 2:1 phyllosilicates with intermediate FeeMg content that preclude mineral and chemical discrimination. Such ambiguities highlight the relevance of exploring the visible spectral range as a complementary tool to characterize Martian phyllosilicates precisely. This article reports the investigation of laboratory reflectance spectra (330–800 nm) from 34 Earth analogues of Martian phyllosilicates with a wide range of MgeFe composition, including nontronite, celadonite and saponite end-members, as well as interstratified glauconite-nontronite, talc-nontronite, and talc-saponite. The spectra indicated the presence of Fe(III) by absorption modulations and a decrease in total reflectance, especially in samples with tetrahedral Fe(III). Absorption bands at 370 and 420 nm were diagnostic of octahedrically and tetrahedrally coordinated Fe(III), respectively. Band amplitudes in the second derivative of the Kubelka-Munk function correlated positively with Fe(III) content (R2 > 0.8). Standard color analyses of the visible reflectance spectra under the CIE illuminant D65 indicated that the CIELAB color parameter a*10 was positively correlated with tetrahedral Fe(III), b*10 was positively correlated with octahedral Fe(III), and L*10 was negatively correlated with Fe(III) in both structural sites. Because Fe(II) was in relatively low amount, it did not provide clear spectral evidence. Multiple regression models using the amplitude of the diagnostic absorption bands predicted well absolute Fe content in the phyllosilicates (R2=0.89) and the ratio Fe/(Fe+Mg+Al) (R2=0.84). CIELAB color parameters improved the prediction of total Fe (R2=0.92) and the ratio Fe/(Fe+Mg+Al) (R2=0.93). Application of these analyses to Martian data has challenges set by Fe oxide dust coating and spatial and spectral resolution. However, these results mark an avenue to develop testable tools using visible-wavelength spectral data from both satellite and lander probes to help establishing Fe content and mineral identification of Martian phyllosilicates

Parametric effects on the evaluation of threshold chromaticity differences using red printed samples

This paper was published in JOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA A-OPTICS IMAGE SCIENCE AND VISION and is made available as an electronic reprint with the permission of OSA. The paper can be found at the following URL on the OSA website: https://doi.org/10.1364/JOSAA.36.000510. Systematic or multiple reproduction or distribution to multiple locations via electronic or other means is prohibited and is subject to penalties under law.[EN] Results from different authors showed deviations of radial orientation in the a*-b* plane (tilt) for the major axes of chromaticity-discrimination ellipses centered around the International Commission on Illumination (CIE) red color center [Color Res. Appl. 3, 149 (1978)], which are not considered by most of the current advanced color-difference formulas (e.g., CIEDE2000). We performed a visual experiment using red printed samples in order to test the influence of the separation between samples (gap) on the mentioned tilt. Our results confirm a counterclockwise tilt of fitted a*-b* ellipses with a magnitude of approximately 36 degrees for samples with no separation, which is similar to that detected by other authors, and a reduction of the mentioned tilt owing to the separation of the samples. We detected a tilt of approximately 22 degrees for samples with a black gap of 0.5 mm and a tilt of approximately 25 degrees for samples with a white gap of 3 mm. Notably, the uncertainty of previous values given by the corresponding credibility intervals of 95% posterior probability is approximately +/- 8 degrees of the mean values. Finally, we study the performance of the most widely used color-difference formulas in the graphic arts sector using our current experimental results, and conclude that the performance of the CAM02-SCD and CAM02-UCS color-difference formulas is significantly better than that of the CIEDE2000 formula.Brusola Simón, F.; Tortajada Montañana, I.; Jorda-Albiñana, B.; Melgosa, M. (2019). Parametric effects on the evaluation of threshold chromaticity differences using red printed samples. Journal of the Optical Society of America A. 36(4):510-517. https://doi.org/10.1364/JOSAA.36.000510S510517364Melgosa, M. (2007). Request for existing experimental datasets on color differences. Color Research & Application, 32(2), 159-159. doi:10.1002/col.20300Luo, M. R., Cui, G., & Rigg, B. (2001). The development of the CIE 2000 colour-difference formula: CIEDE2000. Color Research & Application, 26(5), 340-350. doi:10.1002/col.1049Luo, M. R., & Rigg, B. (1986). Chromaticity-discrimination ellipses for surface colours. Color Research & Application, 11(1), 25-42. doi:10.1002/col.5080110107Alman, D. H., Berns, R. S., Snyder, G. D., & Larsen, W. A. (1989). Performance testing of color-difference metrics using a color tolerance dataset. Color Research & Application, 14(3), 139-151. doi:10.1002/col.5080140308Berns, R. S., Alman, D. H., Reniff, L., Snyder, G. D., & Balonon-Rosen, M. R. (1991). Visual determination of suprathreshold color-difference tolerances using probit analysis. Color Research & Application, 16(5), 297-316. doi:10.1002/col.5080160505Witt, K. (1999). Geometric relations between scales of small colour differences. Color Research & Application, 24(2), 78-92. doi:10.1002/(sici)1520-6378(199904)24:23.0.co;2-mMelgosa, M., Hita, E., Poza, A. J., Alman, D. H., & Berns, R. S. (1997). Suprathreshold color-difference ellipsoids for surface colors. Color Research & Application, 22(3), 148-155. doi:10.1002/(sici)1520-6378(199706)22:33.0.co;2-rIndow, T., Robertson, A. R., Von Grunau, M., & Fielder, G. H. (1992). Discrimination ellipsoids of aperture and simulated surface colors by Matching and paired comparison. Color Research & Application, 17(1), 6-23. doi:10.1002/col.5080170106Xu, H., & Yaguchi, H. (2005). Visual evaluation at scale of threshold to suprathreshold color difference. Color Research & Application, 30(3), 198-208. doi:10.1002/col.20106Huang, M., Liu, H., Cui, G., Luo, M. R., & Melgosa, M. (2012). Evaluation of threshold color differences using printed samples. Journal of the Optical Society of America A, 29(6), 883. doi:10.1364/josaa.29.000883Wen, S. (2012). A color difference metric based on the chromaticity discrimination ellipses. Optics Express, 20(24), 26441. doi:10.1364/oe.20.026441Huang, M., Liu, H., Cui, G., & Luo, M. R. (2011). Testing uniform colour spaces and colour-difference formulae using printed samples. Color Research & Application, 37(5), 326-335. doi:10.1002/col.20689Rich, R. M., Billmeyer, F. W., & Howe, W. G. (1975). Method for deriving color-difference-perceptibility ellipses for surface-color samples. Journal of the Optical Society of America, 65(8), 956. doi:10.1364/josa.65.000956MacAdam, D. L. (1942). Visual Sensitivities to Color Differences in Daylight*. 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Una propuesta sobre los colores de las banderas de las comunidades y ciudades autónomas actualmente existentes en España

According to the current legal regulations, the flags of 8 of the 19 autonomous communities and cities in Spain have only qualitative specifications of their colors. We have performed quantitative color measurements under fixed experimental conditions (e.g. illuminant D65, CIE 1964 standard colorimetric observer) for 3 collections of the 19 mentioned flags: One acquired by internet and two existing in high institutions of the Spanish State in Madrid (Supreme Court and Constitutional Court). The 52 main colors of the flags of the Supreme Court and Constitutional Court are relatively similar (average color difference of 6.2 CIELAB units). Therefore, we propose their average colors (with the exception of the blue color of the diagonal stripe of the flag of Galicia and the red and green stripes of the flag of La Rioja), with a tolerance of 10 CIELAB units, as a reference for future studies and standardization. The average color difference between our proposal and the colors of the purchased flags or those specified in current legislation is very high (about 20 CIELAB units). Most colors of the flags in the Supreme Court and Constitutional Court are located in 6 regions of the CIELAB color space we can name as white, black, red, yellow, green and blue. In all our color comparisons of flags from different collections, hue difference was the smallest component (<20%) of total CIELAB color difference.Según la normativa legal vigente, las banderas de 8 de las 19 comunidades y ciudades autónomas existentes en España tienen sólo especificaciones cualitativas de sus colores. Hemos realizado medidas cuantitativas de color bajo unas mismas condiciones experimentales (e.g. iluminante D65, observador patrón CIE 1964) para 3 colecciones de estas 19 banderas: Una adquirida por internet y dos existentes en altas instituciones del Estado en Madrid (Tribunal Supremo y Tribunal Constitucional). Los 52 colores principales de las banderas del Tribunal Supremo y Tribunal Constitucional son relativamente similares (diferencia de color promedio de 6.2 unidades CIELAB). Por tanto, proponemos su color promedio (con la excepción del color azul de la franja diagonal de la bandera de Galicia y las franjas roja y verde de la bandera de La Rioja), con una tolerancia de 10 unidades CIELAB, como referencia cuantitativa para futuros estudios y estandarización. La diferencia de color promedio entre nuestra propuesta y los colores de las banderas compradas o los especificados en la legislación vigente es muy alta (del orden de 20 unidades CIELAB). La mayor parte de los colores de las banderas del Tribunal Supremo y Tribunal Constitucional se agrupan en 6 regiones del espacio CIELAB, que podemos denominar blanco, negro, rojo, amarillo, verde y azul. La diferencia de tono es la componente más pequeña (<20%) de la diferencia de color CIELAB total en todas las banderas comparadas

Method to determine the degrees of consistency in experimental datasets of perceptual color differences

This paper was published in Journal of the Optical Society of America A and is made available as an electronic reprint with the permission of OSA. The paper can be found at the following URL on the OSA website:https://www.osapublishing.org/josaa/abstract.cfm?uri=josaa-33-12-2289. Systematic or multiple reproduction or distribution to multiple locations via electronic or other means is prohibited and is subject to penalties under law"We propose a fuzzy method to analyze datasets of perceptual color differences with two main objectives: to detect inconsistencies between couples of color pairs and to assign a degree of consistency to each color pair in a dataset. This method can be thought as the outcome of a previous one developed for a similar purpose [J. Mod. Opt. 56, 1447 (2009)], whose performance is compared with the proposed one. In this work, we present the results achieved using the dataset employed to develop the current CIE/ISO color-difference formula, CIEDE2000, but the method could be applied to any dataset. Specifically, in the mentioned dataset, we find that some couples of color pairs have contradictory information, which can interfere in the successful development of future color-difference formulas as well as in checking the performance of current ones. (C) 2016 Optical Society of AmericaMinisterio de Economia y Competitividad (MINECO) del Gobierno de Espana (FIS2013-40661-P, FIS2013-45952-P, MTM2015-64373-P); European Regional Development Fund (ERDF).Morillas, S.; Gómez-Robledo, L.; Huertas, R.; Melgosa, M. (2016). Method to determine the degrees of consistency in experimental datasets of perceptual color differences. Journal of the Optical Society of America A. 33(12):2289-2296. doi:10.1364/JOSAA.33.002289S22892296331

Spectral Image Processing for Museum Lighting Using CIE LED Illuminants

The authors thank Purificación Marinetto Sánchez for discussions on the selected art piece and facilities to measure it at the Museum of the Alhambra (Granada) and David Nesbitt for technical English revision of the original manuscript.This work presents a spectral color-imaging procedure for the detailed colorimetric study of real artworks under arbitrary illuminants. The results demonstrate this approach to be a powerful tool for art and heritage professionals when deciding which illumination to use in museums, or which conservation or restoration techniques best maintain the color appearance of the original piece under any illuminant. Spectral imaging technology overcomes the limitations of common area-based point-measurement devices such as spectrophotometers, allowing a local study either pixelwise or by selected areas. To our knowledge, this is the first study available that uses the proposed CIE (Commission Internationale de l’Éclairage) light-emitting diode (LED) illuminants in the context of art and heritage science, comparing them with the three main CIE illuminants A, D50, and D65. For this, the corresponding colors under D65 have been calculated using a chromatic adaptation transform analogous to the one in CIECAM02. For the sample studied, the CIE LED illuminants with the lowest average CIEDE2000 color differences from the standard CIE illuminants are LED-V1 for A and LED-V2 for D50 and D65, with 1.23, 1.07, and 1.57 units, respectively. The work studied is a Moorish epigraphic frieze of plasterwork with a tiled skirting from the Nasrid period (12th–15th centuries) exhibited in the Museum of the Alhambra (Granada, Spain).This research was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, under research project DPI2015-64571-R, the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and UniversitiesWith support from European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), projects RTI2018-094738-B-I00, FIS2016-80983-P and HAR2015—66139-PJapan Society for the Promotion of Science, KAKENHI grant number 18KK0282

Colorimetric Evaluation of Pictorial Coatings in Conservation of Plasterworks from the Islamic Tradition

The main aim of our current investigation is the colorimetric evaluation of protective treatments (consolidants) applied to traditional Islamic plasterworks, under natural ageing conditions. From analyses of the original pictorial plaster remains in the Courtyard of the Maidens of the Real Alcázar in Seville, Spain (a World Heritage Site) we prepared test specimens, using materials and techniques similar to the original ones. We analysed 56 test specimens painted with four pigments (yellow, green, blue, and red), using two different binders (animal glue and gum arabic), onto which five representative consolidants were applied: barium hydroxide, acrylic copolymer, polyvinyl butyral, ethyl silicate, and bacterial carbonatogenesis. The test specimens were subjected to natural ageing for one year (indoors and outdoors), enabling a colorimetric assessment to be made of the changes of the polychrome surfaces. The colorimetric heterogeneity of the 56 specimens after ageing registered an average value of 2.7 CIELAB units, assessed using the mean colour difference with respect to the mean. In the aged specimens, the addition of consolidants resulted in average colour differences (mainly lightness differences) of 10.7 and 6.7 CIELAB units, considering as a reference the specimens without consolidants aged indoors and outdoors, respectively. These colour differences were very similar for both binders but not for the four pigments, higher values being found for the blue and red pigments. Considering as reference the samples without consolidants aged outdoors, we found no statistically significant colour differences, either among the five consolidants (p = .094) nor the two binders (p = .674) used. In addition to the magnitude of colour differences, the choice of the most appropriate consolidants must also consider aspects related to performance and effectiveness. Overall, for the type of paints tested, the polyvinyl butyral consolidant appeared to perform the best, followed by the ethyl silicate.Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (Gobierno de España), with support from European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), within the framework of Research Projects HAR2015-66139-P and FIS2016-80983-PConsejería de Economía, Innovación, Ciencia y Empleo, Junta de Andalucía (Research Project P12-HUM-1941)