Resonant backward scattering of light by a two-side-open subwavelength metallic slit

The backward scattering of TM-polarized light by a two-side-open subwavelength slit in a metal film is analyzed. We show that the reflection coefficient versus wavelength possesses a Fabry-Perot-like dependence that is similar to the anomalous behavior of transmission reported in the study [Y. Takakura, Phys. Rev. Lett. \textbf{86}, 5601 (2001)]. The open slit totally reflects the light at the near-to-resonance wavelengths. In addition, we show that the interference of incident and resonantly backward-scattered light produces in the near-field diffraction zone a spatially localized wave whose intensity is 10-10$^3$ times greater than the incident wave, but one order of magnitude smaller than the intra-cavity intensity. The amplitude and phase of the resonant wave at the slit entrance and exit are different from that of a Fabry-Perot cavity.Comment: 5 figure

Tackling exposure: Placing disaster risk management at the heart of national economic and fiscal policy

The number of disasters is increasing. When combined with upward trends in losses from economic disasters, it is clear that paying for disaster relief and recovery at such large scales is unsustainable, in both human and financial terms. Economic exposure to disasters is increasing faster than per capita gross domestic product (GDP), and the impacts of climate change on the severity and frequency of hazards will accentuate existing trends in disaster losses in the future. While support for effective disaster relief and recovery must remain, there should be a greater emphasis on proactive efforts to reduce risk, based on comprehensive risk assessments and the integration of risk-reduction measures into national economic and development planning

From event analysis to global lessons: disaster forensics for building resilience

With unprecedented growth in disaster risk, there is an urgent need for enhanced learning about and understanding disasters, particularly in relation to the trends in the drivers of increasing risk. Building on the disaster forensics field, we introduce the Post Event Review Capability (PERC) methodology for systematically and holistically analyzing disaster events, and identifying actionable recommendations. PERC responds to a need for learning about the successes and failures in disaster risk management and resilience, and uncovers the underlying drivers of increasing risk. We draw generalizable insights identified from seven applications of the methodology to date, where we find that across the globe policy makers and practitioners in disaster risk management face strikingly similar challenges despite variations in context, indicating encouraging potential for mutual learning. These lessons highlight the importance of integrated risk reduction strategies. We invite others to utilize the freely available PERC approach and contribute to building a repository of learnings on disaster risk management and resilience. This discussion paper is under review for the journal Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences (NHESS)

Catalogue and Toolbox of Risk Assessment and Management Tools

The ENHANCE project is concerned with analysing and working towards improved public-private partnerships for managing risks from natural hazards. An important issue for such partnerships is the methods, tools and processes available for assessing risk and risk management options. Risk analysis has long provided useful input to decision-making. At the same time, the field of risk analysis is in motion and an enhanced framing of risk analysis and risk management is being embraced following an iterative cycle organized around notions of learning, innovation and transformation. This broadened vision on risk analysis is a key issue for the ENHANCE project as well, which takes many and different perspectives on analysing, understanding, communicating and managing risk. This report lays out the status quo at the outset of the project regarding risk analytical tools, methods and data that are currently used by project partners in ENHANCE. The task overall develops a catalogue of existing risk assessment and management tools and methods to describe the concepts of iterative risk management and further sets up a toolbox, containing individual models and tools to be used by the case studies in their analyses. While work in the cases study, including methodological development, is in process, we find that ENHANCE partners and cases employ a multitude of models, tools and data ranging from impact analysis, different risk modelling techniques to various decision-support methods. A number of tools that encapsulate these methods are also available with the consortium. We suggest the tools and methods in use can be useful starting points for working towards a broader vision of iterative risk management. While the work so far, and this deliverable, have focussed on populating the technical stages of the risk analytical cycle (visually identified as the inner circle), we suggest in the next phase of ENHANCE, additional efforts should be dispensed to better understand adaptive management aspects associated with using these methods and tools, such as learning, innovation and transformation, which we exhibit visually in an outer circle. This report proceeds as follows: We start with laying out key elements of risk analysis and management in section 2, which also describes the new framing organized around the iterative risk-management concept. Methods for assessing risk and evaluating risk management are discussed in section 3. Then we consider methods, models and datasets that are in use in the ENHANCE case studies at the moment (section 4), before section 5 concludes. Finally and importantly, the annex lists more information on cases studies, for which detailed information was received from the project partners

Anomalies in thickness measurements of graphene and few layer graphite crystals by tapping mode atomic force microscopy

Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) in the tapping (intermittent contact) mode is a commonly used tool to measure the thickness of graphene and few layer graphene (FLG) flakes on silicon oxide surfaces. It is a convenient tool to quickly determine the thickness of individual FLG films. However, reports from literature show a large variation of the measured thickness of graphene layers. This paper is focused on the imaging mechanism of tapping mode AFM (TAFM) when measuring graphene and FLG thickness and we show that at certain measurement parameters significant deviations can be introduced in the measured thickness of FLG flakes. An increase of as much as 1 nm can be observed in the measured height of FLG crystallites, when using an improperly chosen range of free amplitude values of the tapping cantilever. We present comparative Raman spectroscopy and TAFM measurements on selected single and multilayer graphene films, based on which we suggest ways to correctly measure graphene and FLG thickness using TAFM

Pressure for drug development in lysosomal storage disorders – a quantitative analysis thirty years beyond the US orphan drug act

Background: Lysosomal storage disorders are a heterogeneous group of approximately 50 monogenically inherited orphan conditions. A defect leads to the storage of complex molecules in the lysosome, and patients develop a complex multisystemic phenotype of high morbidity often associated with premature death. More than 30 years ago the Orphan Drug Act of 1983 passed the United States legislation intended to facilitate the development of drugs for rare disorders. We directed our efforts in assessing which lysosomal diseases had drug development pressure and what distinguished those with successful development and approvals from diseases not treated or without orphan drug designation. Methods: Analysis of the FDA database for orphan drug designations through descriptive and comparative statistics. Results: Between 1983 and 2013, fourteen drugs for seven conditions received FDA approval. Overall, orphan drug status was designated 70 times for 20 conditions. Approved therapies were enzyme replacement therapies (N = 10), substrate reduction therapies (N = 1), small molecules facilitating lysosomal substrate transportation (N = 3). FDA approval was significantly associated with a disease prevalence higher than 0.5/100,000 (p = 0.00742) and clinical development programs that did not require a primary neurological endpoint (p = 0.00059). Orphan drug status was designated for enzymes, modified enzymes, fusion proteins, chemical chaperones, small molecules leading to substrate reduction, or facilitating subcellular substrate transport, stem cells as well as gene therapies. Conclusions: Drug development focused on more common diseases. Primarily neurological diseases were neglected. Small clinical trials with either somatic or biomarker endpoints were successful. Enzyme replacement therapy was the most successful technology. Four factors played a key role in successful orphan drug development or orphan drug designations: 1) prevalence of disease 2) endpoints 3) regulatory precedent, and 4) technology platform. Successful development seeded further innovation

Enhanced transmission versus localization of a light pulse by a subwavelength metal slit: Can the pulse have both characteristics?

The existence of resonant enhanced transmission and collimation of light waves by subwavelength slits in metal films [for example, see T.W. Ebbesen et al., Nature (London) 391, 667 (1998) and H.J. Lezec et al., Science, 297, 820 (2002)] leads to the basic question: Can a light be enhanced and simultaneously localized in space and time by a subwavelength slit? To address this question, the spatial distribution of the energy flux of an ultrashort (femtosecond) wave-packet diffracted by a subwavelength (nanometer-size) slit was analyzed by using the conventional approach based on the Neerhoff and Mur solution of Maxwell's equations. The results show that a light can be enhanced by orders of magnitude and simultaneously localized in the near-field diffraction zone at the nm- and fs-scales. Possible applications in nanophotonics are discussed.Comment: 5 figure

A typology of community flood resilience

Flood risk is increasing worldwide and there is a growing need to better understand the co-benefits of investments in disaster resilience. Utilizing a multinational community flood resilience dataset, this paper takes a systems approach to understanding community-level flood resilience. Using a cluster analysis and bivariate correlation methods, we develop a typology of community flood resilience capacity based on community characteristics and five capitals (human, financial, natural, physical, and social). Our results reinforce the importance of context-specific policymaking and give recommendations of four distinct clusters to investigate the relationship between flood resilience and prevailing development conditions. We especially find that communities with higher interactions between their capital capacities tend to have higher flood resilience levels. Additionally, there are indications that stronger interactions between community capacities can help to induce multiple co-benefits when investing in disaster resilience. Our results also have important policy implications on the individual community level. For example, based on our results, we suggest that communities with lower flood resilience capacities and interactions can best build resilience on leveraging their relatively higher human capital capacities to strengthen the financial and social capitals. Negative effects might happen for urban communities when co-benefits of natural and physical capital are not fully integrated. The highest flood resilience capacity is found in communities with a well-balanced household income distribution which is likely a contributing factor to the importance of financial capital for this cluster. Our results emphasize the importance of an integrative approach to management when implementing systematic flood disaster resilience metrics and development measures