Morphological and Molecular Systematics of Resupinatus (Basidiomycota)

Cyphelloid fungi are, compared to their gilled relatives, poorly studied and understood. Within the tribe Resupinateae (which includes the genera Resupinatus, Stigmatolemma, Aphyllotus and Stromatocyphella), little is known about the evolution of the cyphelloid fruit body form. How many times has this reduced morphology evolved within the group? Do all cyphelloid members that are currently treated in this group belong there? Are there other described species of cyphelloid fungi currently treated in other genera that belong within the Resupinateae? This study presents phylogenies of the cyphelloid and small lamellate members of the Resupinateae based on rDNA sequences to illustrate the evolution of reduced basidiomata. This study also provides an analysis of traditional morphological characters used to distinguish species (fruit body colour and size, and spore size, shape, ornamentation and colour) and compares morphological and DNA-based classifications to illustrate a common problem in cyphelloid taxonomy: because these forms are so rarely studied, the incidence of synonymy within the group is high. The few herbarium specimens associated with many species names may lead to false impressions of host specificity or restricted geographic ranges for species that are more generalist or cosmopolitan. Some previously suggested synonymies and reports are based on misidentifications and mask genuine patterns of hosts and geographic range. Based on the phylogenetic analysis of the group, all members of the Resupinateae fall into a single genus, Resupinatus, (Stigmatolemma and Stromatocyphella are synonyms), whereas the genus Aphyllotus is excluded. This study highlights the significance of herbaria as repositories of unknown and undocumented biodiversity, and shows that the evolution of different fruit body morphologies in the Fungi is not a linear pattern of simple to complex

The Proportionality of Common Sense Causal Claims

This paper defends strong proportionality against what I take to be its principal objection – that proportionality fails to preserve common sense causal intuitions – by articulating independently plausible constraints on how to represent causal situations. I first assume an interventionist formulation of proportionality, following Woodward. This views proportionality as a relational constraint on variable selection in causal modeling that requires that changes in the cause variable line up with those in the effect variable. I then argue that the principal objection derives from a failure to recognize two constraints on variable selection presupposed by interventionism: exhaustivity and exclusivity

Strong Proportionality and Causal Claims

There are several supposedly lethal objections to the view that causation is essentially proportional. The first targets an account of proportionality in terms of causal models, pointing out that proportionality is too easily satisfied in causal model accounts of causation through manipulation of the range of values that a variable can take (Franklin-Hall, 2016). The second argues that proportionality legitimizes only the most general things as causes, and proportionality thereby contravenes causal intuitions (Bontly, 2005; Franklin-Hall, 2016; McDonnell, 2018, 2017; Weslake, 2013). The final, and perhaps most intractable, objection holds that proportionality counter-intuitively legitimizes disjunctive causes (Shapiro and Sober, 2012; Weslake, 2017; Woodward, 2018). This paper provides a unified response to these objections, which is best formulated in a causal model framework. I first articulate two independently plausible principles of variable selection – exclusivity and exhaustivity. I then show how the adoption of these principles responds to Franklin-Hall’s objection, and dissolves the remaining two

The application of S isotopes and S/Se ratios in determining ore-forming processes of magmatic Ni–Cu–PGE sulfide deposits: a cautionary case study from the northern Bushveld Complex

The application of S/Se ratios and S isotopes in the study of magmatic Ni–Cu–PGE sulfide deposits has long been used to trace the source of S and to constrain the role of crustal contamination in triggering sulfide saturation. However, both S/Se ratios and S isotopes are subject to syn- and post-magmatic processes that may alter their initial signatures. We present in situ mineral δ34S signatures and S/Se ratios combined with bulk S/Se ratios to investigate and assess their utility in constraining ore-forming processes and the source of S within magmatic sulfide deposits. Magmatic Ni–Cu–PGE sulfide mineralization in the Grasvally Norite–Pyroxenite–Anorthosite (GNPA) member, northern Bushveld Complex was used as a case study based on well-defined constraints of sulfide paragenesis and local S isotope signatures. A crustal δ34S component is evident in the most primary sulfide assemblage regardless of footwall lithology, and is inferred that the parental magma(s) of the GNPA member was crustally contaminated and sulfide saturated at the time of emplacement. However, S/Se ratios of both the primary and in particular secondary sulfide assemblages record values within or below the mantle range, rather than high crustal S/Se ratios. In addition, there is a wide range of S/Se ratio for each sulfide mineral within individual assemblages that is not necessarily consistent with the bulk ratio. The initial crustal S/Se ratio is interpreted to have been significantly modified by syn-magmatic lowering of S/Se ratio by sulfide dissolution, and post-magmatic lowering of the S/Se ratio from hydrothermal S-loss, which also increases the PGE tenor of the sulfides. Trace element signatures and variations in Th/Yb and Nb/Th ratios support both an early pre-emplacement contamination event as seen by the S isotopes and S/Se ratios, but also a second contamination event resulting from the interaction of the GNPA magma with the local footwall country rocks at the time of emplacement; though this did not add any additional S. We are able to present an integrated emplacement and contamination model for the northern limb of the Bushveld Complex. Although the multitude of processes that affect variations in the δ34S signature and in particular S/Se ratio may be problematic in interpreting ore genesis, they can reveal a wealth of additional detail on a number of processes involved in the genetic history of a Ni–Cu–PGE deposit in addition to crustal contamination. However, a prerequisite for being able to do this is to utilize other independent petrological and mineralogical techniques that provide constraints on both the timing and effect of various ore-forming and modifying processes. Utilizing both bulk and in situ methods in concert to determine the S/Se ratio allows for the assessment of multiple sulfide populations, the partitioning behaviour of Se during sulfide liquid fractionation and also the effects of low temperature fluid alteration. In comparison, S isotopes are relatively more robust and represent a more reliable indicator of the role of crustal S contamination. The addition of trace element data to the above makes for an incredibly powerful approach in assessing the role of crustal contamination in magmatic sulfide systems

Is African agriculture converging? Evidence from a panel of crop yields

Crop Production/Industries,

Evaluating Importance Ratings as an Alternative to Mental Models in Predicting Driving Crashes and Moving Violations

The present study investigated the extent to which importance ratings (i.e., a measure of perceived importance for driving-related concepts) are a viable alternative to traditional mental model assessment methods in predicting driving performance. Although mental models may predict driving–related outcomes—crash involvement and moving violations—common mental model assessment techniques are associated with administrative limitations and challenges, which can affect how valid mental models are as assessments of knowledge structure. Importance ratings, as a measure of driving-related knowledge that may be associated with fewer administrative limitations, were hypothesized to provide equal predictive validity for driving–related performance outcomes in a sample of undergraduate students. To investigate the extent to which the measurement of mental models and importance ratings contribute to the prediction of driving crashes and moving violations, students completed Pathfinder, a common computer-based mental model assessment method, and paper-and-pencil importance ratings. In addition, students completed a test of driving knowledge and reported driving behaviors and outcomes including at-fault crashes and moving violations that occurred over the past five years (i.e., from 2005 to 2009). A group of expert drivers completed mental model and importance ratings assessments as well. Data across expert raters were combined and analyzed for appropriateness to serve as referent scores for each assessment. Students' mental model accuracy as well as importance rating accuracy was based on the extent to which student mental models and ratings agreed with those provided by the group of expert drivers. The results suggest that importance rating and mental model accuracy predicted crash involvement and moving violations. Whereas mental model accuracy was a stronger predictor of the number of moving violations, importance rating accuracy predicted the number of at-fault crashes slightly better than mental models. Although inconclusive, these results suggest that importance ratings may be a viable alternative to traditional mental model assessment in predicting some driving outcomes. Future research is warranted on importance ratings and other alternative mental model assessments

Evaluation of the Department of Planning and Infrastructure's Bike to Work Breakfast 2005

The Metropolitan Transport Strategy (1995) proposed moving from a transport system which was dominated by low occupancy car use, to a more balanced transport system of public transport and non-motorised transport options. Creating this change requires initiatives that create critical mass awareness, in work organisations and the community. The Bike to Work Breakfast is an example of such an initiative. This year it was held on Friday 11 March, 2005 and aimed to increase awareness of, and promote cycling as an alternative mode of transport to and from work. A free healthy breakfast was provided to everyone who cycled on the day. A total of 1232 participants who attended the 2005 Bike to Work Breakfast completed questionnaires. The majority of respondents were male (69%, n=845). The age of respondents varied, with the most common age group being 31-40 years (29%, n=353) followed by 41-50 years (26%, n=324). Respondents cited a number of different reasons for cycling. The majority indicated improved fitness (84%, n=1035) and enjoyment (63%, n=777) as the main reasons for cycling. Almost half of respondents (43%, n=535) cycled on a daily basis whilst a further 42% (n=524) reported cycling 2-3 times per week. Fifty three percent of respondents (n=5595) lived less than 13 kilometres from work and almost one quarter (24%, n=266) lived less than eight kilometres from their workplace. Respondents suggested they would ride to work more often if there were showers at work (34%, n=422), more on road facilities (29%, n=360) and lockers at work (24%, n=293). Of the 1232 participants who completed questionnaires, sixty eight percent (n=843) had attended the Bike to Work Breakfast previously

Identification of Carbohydrate Metabolism Genes in the Metagenome of a Marine Biofilm Community Shown to Be Dominated by Gammaproteobacteria and Bacteroidetes

Polysaccharides are an important source of organic carbon in the marine environment and degradation of the insoluble and globally abundant cellulose is a major component of the marine carbon cycle. Although a number of species of cultured bacteria are known to degrade crystalline cellulose, little is known of the polysaccharide hydrolases expressed by cellulose-degrading microbial communities, particularly in the marine environment. Next generation 454 Pyrosequencing was applied to analyze the microbial community that colonizes and degrades insoluble polysaccharides in situ in the Irish Sea. The bioinformatics tool MG-RAST was used to examine the randomly sampled data for taxonomic markers and functional genes, and showed that the community was dominated by members of the Gammaproteobacteria and Bacteroidetes. Furthermore, the identification of 211 gene sequences matched to a custom-made database comprising the members of nine glycoside hydrolase families revealed an extensive repertoire of functional genes predicted to be involved in cellulose utilization. This demonstrates that the use of an in situ cellulose baiting method yielded a marine microbial metagenome considerably enriched in functional genes involved in polysaccharide degradation. The research reported here is the first designed to specifically address the bacterial communities that colonize and degrade cellulose in the marine environment and to evaluate the glycoside hydrolase (cellulase and chitinase) gene repertoire of that community, in the absence of the biases associated with PCR-based molecular techniques