Comparison of FlowMax to the Cyton Calculator.

<p>The Cyton Calculator <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0067620#pone.0067620-Hawkins3" target="_blank">[9]</a> and a computational tool implementing our methodology, “FlowMax,” were used to train the cyton model with log-normally distributed division and death times on a CFSE time course of wildtype B cells stimulated with lipopolysaccharides (LPS). The best-fit generational cell counts were input to the Cyton Calculator. (A) Visual summary of solution quality estimation pipeline implemented as part of FlowMax. Candidate parameter sets are filtered by the normalized % area difference score, parameter sensitivity ranges are calculated, parameter sensitivity ranges are clustered to reveal non-redundant maximum-likelihood parameter ranges (red ranges). Jagged lines represent the sum of uniform parameter distributions in each cluster. (B) Best fit cyton model parameters determined using the Cyton Calculator (blue dots) and our phenotyping tool, FlowMax (square red individual fits with sensitivity ranges represented by error bars and square green weighted cluster averages with error bars representing the intersection of parameter sensitivity ranges for 41 solutions in the only identified cluster). (C) Plots of Fs (the fraction of cells dividing to the next generation), and log-normal distributions for the time to divide and die of undivided and dividing cells sampled uniformly from best-fit cluster ranges in (B). (D) Generational (colors) and total cell counts (black) are plotted as a function of time for 250 cyton parameter sets sampled uniformly from the intersection of best-fit cluster parameter ranges. Red dots show average experimental cell counts for each time point. Error bars show standard deviation for duplicate runs.</p

Proposed integrated phenotyping approach (FlowMax).

<p>CFSE flow-cytometry time series are preprocessed to create one-dimensional fluorescence histograms that are used to determine the cell proliferation parameters for each time point, using the parameters of the previous time points as added constraints (step 1). Fluorescence parameters are then used to extend a cell population model and allow for direct training of the cell population parameters on the fluorescence histograms (step 2). To estimate solution sensitivity and redundancy, step 2 is repeated many times, solutions are filtered by score, parameter sensitivities are determined for each solution, non-redundant maximum-likelihood parameter ranges are found after clustering, and a final filtering step eliminates clusters representing poor solutions (step 3).</p

The fcyton cell proliferation model.

<p>(A) A graphical representation summarizing the model parameters required to calculate the total number of cells in each generation as a function of time. Division and death times are assumed to be log-normally distributed and different between undivided and dividing cells. Progressor fractions (Fs) determine the fraction of responding cells in each generation committed to division and protected from death. (B,C) Analysis of the accuracy associated with fitting fcyton parameters for a set of 1,000 generated realistic datasets of generational cell counts assuming perfect cell counts and an optimized <i>ad hoc</i> objective function (see <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0067620#pone.0067620.s012" target="_blank">Text S1</a> and <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0067620#pone.0067620.s010" target="_blank">Tables S3</a> and <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0067620#pone.0067620.s011" target="_blank">S4</a>). (B) Average percent error in generational cell counts normalized to the maximum generational cell count for each time course. Numbers indicate an error ≥ 0.5%. (C) Analysis of the error associated with determining key fcyton parameters. Box plots represent 5, 25, 50, 75, and 95 percentile values. Outliers are not shown. For analysis of all fcyton parameter errors see also <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0067620#pone.0067620.s002" target="_blank">Figure S2</a> (green).</p

Classical and non-classical conditions identified by simulated annealing optimization.

<p>A simulated annealing optimization scheme was used to find values for six simulation-invariant parameters that would predispose populations toward either increased or decreased maintenance in response to increased extrinsic mortality. The fit score stochastically improved over the course of the optimization (<b>A and C</b>). The optimal starvation modifier (ε), growth efficiency (), initial energy of individuals (), mating energy (), mating energy threshold (<i>mateThreshold</i>), and death cost function type () for the classical (<b>B</b>), and non-classical (<b>D</b>) effect are shown as a function of optimization duration. D_type: 0 = Sigmoidal Low, 1 = Linear Low, 2 = Asymptotic Low, 3 = Sigmoidal High, 4 = Linear High, 5 = Asymptotic High. Colored dots indicate that the intrinsic death effect was monotonic.</p

FlowMax: A Computational Tool for Maximum Likelihood Deconvolution of CFSE Time Courses

<div><p>The immune response is a concerted dynamic multi-cellular process. Upon infection, the dynamics of lymphocyte populations are an aggregate of molecular processes that determine the activation, division, and longevity of individual cells. The timing of these single-cell processes is remarkably widely distributed with some cells undergoing their third division while others undergo their first. High cell-to-cell variability and technical noise pose challenges for interpreting popular dye-dilution experiments objectively. It remains an unresolved challenge to avoid under- or over-interpretation of such data when phenotyping gene-targeted mouse models or patient samples. Here we develop and characterize a computational methodology to parameterize a cell population model in the context of noisy dye-dilution data. To enable objective interpretation of model fits, our method estimates fit sensitivity and redundancy by stochastically sampling the solution landscape, calculating parameter sensitivities, and clustering to determine the maximum-likelihood solution ranges. Our methodology accounts for both technical and biological variability by using a cell fluorescence model as an adaptor during population model fitting, resulting in improved fit accuracy without the need for <i>ad hoc</i> objective functions. We have incorporated our methodology into an integrated phenotyping tool, FlowMax, and used it to analyze B cells from two NFκB knockout mice with distinct phenotypes; we not only confirm previously published findings at a fraction of the expended effort and cost, but reveal a novel phenotype of nfkb1/p105/50 in limiting the proliferative capacity of B cells following B-cell receptor stimulation. In addition to complementing experimental work, FlowMax is suitable for high throughput analysis of dye dilution studies within clinical and pharmacological screens with objective and quantitative conclusions.</p></div

Overview of the modeling and optimization procedures.

<p>An agent-based stochastic model was implemented in which individuals invest energy foraged from a common pool toward maturation, metabolism, mating, and maintenance and are subject to random, density-dependent predation, starvation, and aging. Maturation and intrinsic death times are inheritable traits used to determine maturation, and maintenance costs. A flowchart depicts the simulations scheme (<b>A</b>). Sample simulation solution depicting changes in observed statistics with time is shown (<b>B</b>). To find appropriate values for six simulation-invariant parameters for the classical and non-classical evolutionary response to increased predation a simulated annealing optimization approach was used (<b>C</b>). See methods for model and optimization details.</p

Testing the accuracy of the proposed approach as a function of data quality.

<p>Six typical CFSE time courses of varying quality were generated and fitted using our methodology (<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0067620#pone-0067620-g001" target="_blank">Figure 1</a>). (A-F) The best-fit cluster solutions are shown as overlays on top of black histograms for indicated time points. Conditions tested were (A) low CV, (B) high CV (e.g. poor staining), (C) 10% Gaussian count noise (e.g. mixed populations), (D) 10% Gaussian scale noise (poor mixing of cells), (E) four distributed time points (e.g. infrequent time points), (F) four early time points from the first 48 hours (see Methods for full description). (G) Parameter sensitivity ranges for each solution in each non-redundant cluster next to the maximum likelihood parameter ranges are shown for fcyton fitting. The actual parameter value is shown first (black dot).</p

Changes in evolved lifespan and maturation age are accompanied by corresponding shifts in juvenile energetic investments.

<p>Under classical (<b>A–C</b>) and non-classical conditions (<b>D–F</b>), the percentage of per-iteration energy devoted to somatic maintenance, reproduction, and metabolism by juveniles is shown. In both cases, the majority of energy was devoted to reproduction, followed by metabolism, followed by somatic maintenance (<b>A–F</b>). Under classical conditions, rising levels of predation, , caused juveniles to invest less in somatic maintenance (<b>A</b>), more into early peak fertility (<b>B</b>), and less into metabolism (<b>C</b>). Under non-classical conditions, larger values of caused juveniles to devote less energy to early peak fertility (<b>E</b>) and more towards somatic maintenance (<b>D</b>). Investments in metabolism were comparable for various values of predation modifier, (<b>F</b>).</p

Accuracy of phenotyping generated datasets in a sequential or integrated manner.

<p>The accuracy associated with sequential fitting Gaussians to fluorescence data to obtain cell counts for each generation (blue) and integrated fitting of the fcyton model to fluorescence data directly using fitted fluorescence parameters as adaptors (purple) was determined for 1,000 sets of randomly generated realistic CFSE time courses (see also <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0067620#pone.0067620.s010" target="_blank">Tables S3</a> and <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0067620#pone.0067620.s011" target="_blank">S4</a>). (A) Average percent error in generational cell counts normalized to the maximum generational cell count for each time course. Numbers indicate an error ≥ 0.5%. (B) Analysis of the error associated with determining key fcyton cellular parameters. Box plots represent 5,25,50,75, and 95 percentile values. Outliers are not shown. For a comparison of all 12 parameters see <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0067620#pone.0067620.s001" target="_blank">Figure S1</a> (blue) and <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0067620#pone.0067620.s002" target="_blank">Figure S2</a> (purple).</p

Summary of key model parameters and quantities.

<p>Populations were modeled explicitly using stochastic agents to represent individuals subject to shared resources, mating, and both extrinsic and intrinsic death.</p