FIELD OBSERVATIONS OF THE 2015 (NOVEMBER 17, MW 6.4) LEFKAS (IONIAN SEA, WESTERN GREECE) EARTHQUAKE IMPACT ON NATURAL ENVIRONMENT AND BUILDING STOCK OF LEFKAS ISLAND

Την Τρίτη 17 Νοεμβρίου 2015 στις 09:10:07 (τοπική ώρα) εκδηλώθηκε σφοδρή σεισμική δόνηση μεγέθους Mw 6.4, βάθους περί τα 7χλμ και με επίκεντρο σε απόσταση 20 χλμ νοτιοδυτικά της πόλης της Λευκάδας. Η σεισμική δραστηριότητα στην περιοχή ήταν ουσιαστικά αναμενόμενη σε μεσοπρόθεσμη κλίμακα μετά τον σεισμό της Λευκάδας το 2003 και τους σεισμούς της Κεφαλονιάς το 2014. Στον ενδιάμεσο χώρο οι γεωτεκτονικές δυνάμεις δεν είχαν εκτονωθεί μετά τους σεισμούς του 1948 με αποτέλεσμα την εκδήλωση του πρόσφατου σεισμού, που έγινε αισθητός σε όλη τη Λευκάδα και την ευρύτερη περιοχή προκαλώντας το θάνατο 2 και τον τραυματισμό 8 κατοίκων, εκτεταμένες δευτερογενείς επιπτώσεις στο περιβάλλον και βλάβες στα κτίρια και τις υποδομές του νησιού. Οι δευτερογενείς επιπτώσεις στη δυτική Λευκάδα διακρίθηκαν σε εδαφικές ρωγμές, αστοχίες πρανών και ρευστοποίηση. Πρωτογενείς επιπτώσεις δεν παρατηρήθηκαν. Κτιριακές βλάβες σημειώθηκαν κυρίως σε οικισμούς στο βύθισμα Δράγανου-Αθάνιου στη νοτιοδυτική Λευκάδα. Από τα κτίρια, που έχουν κατασκευαστεί χωρίς αντισεισμικό σχεδιασμό, τα πετρόκτιστα κτίρια και οι ιστορικές και μνημειακές κατασκευές υπέστησαν τις σοβαρότερες βλάβες, ενώ τα παραδοσιακά κτίρια με διπλό δομικό σύστημα ανάληψης φορτίων συμπεριφέρθηκαν ικανοποιητικά. Τα κτίρια με οπλισμένο σκυρόδεμα επηρεάστηκαν όχι τόσο από το σεισμό αλλά από τις δευτερογενείς επιπτώσεις του στο περιβάλλον.On Tuesday, November 17, 2015 at 07:10:07 (UTC) a strong earthquake struck Lefkas Island (Ionian Sea, Western Greece) with magnitude Mw 6.4, depth of about 7 km and epicenter located 20 km southwest of Lefkas town. The seismic activity in the region was essentially expected after the 2003 Lefkas earthquake and the 2014 Cephalonia earthquakes. Between these earthquake affected areas, the tectonic stresses were not released after the 1948 Lefkas earthquakes. Instead, they were intensifying and accumulating until the generation of the 2015 event. It was felt in Lefkas and the surrounding region and caused the death of 2 people, the injury of 8 others, earthquake environmental effects (EEE) and damage to buildings and infrastructure. Secondary EEE were observed in western Lefkas and included ground cracks, slope movements and liquefaction. Primary effects were not detected in the field. Buildings damage were mainly observed in villages of Dragano-Athani graben in southwestern Lefkas. Among structures constructed with no seismic provisions, the stone masonry buildings and monumental structures suffered most damage, while the traditional buildings with dual structural system performed relatively well. Reinforced-concrete buildings were affected not so much by the earthquake itself but by the generation of secondary effects

Revisiting the most destructive earthquake sequence in the recent history of greece: Environmental effects induced by the 9, 11 and 12 august 1953 ionian sea earthquakes

The August 1953 seismic sequence comprised the most destructive events in the recent history of Greece. The mainshock on 12 August, and its foreshocks on 9 and 11 August, devastated the southern Ionian Islands. The existing literature emphasized the destructive effects of the earthquakes on buildings, as well as to the emergency response and recovery actions. This resulted in a large gap in capturing the full picture of the earthquake’s environmental effects. The present study aims to fill this gap by reconstructing the most complete picture possible of the primary and secondary effects on the environment of the southern Ionian Islands by the August 1953 earthquakes. This reconstruction is based on all available sources, comprising not only the existing scientific literature, but especially sources that have not been considered to date, including newspapers of local and national circulation. In total, 120 cases of the earthquake’s environmental effects were identified, comprised of 33 cases of primary and 87 cases of secondary effects. In descending order of occurrence, slope failures, co-seismic uplift, hydrological anomalies, ground cracks, tsunami, liquefaction, dust clouds, hydrocarbon-related phenomena, jumping stones and vegetation effects were distributed mainly in Cephalonia Island and secondarily in the Ithaki and Zakythos Islands. The primary effects were mainly detected in eastern Cephalonia, which presented uplift of up to 70 cm, while the majority of the secondary effects were triggered in specific zones with characteristics that made them susceptible to the occurrence of earthquake-related hazards. © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland

Floods in Greece, a statistical and spatial approach

Flooding is one of the most important types of disasters in southern Europe recording many victims and extended damages over the last century. The increased pressure for urban expansion together with the high population density has increased flood risk considerably in the region. Greece is not an exception in this regime, having a very rich flooding record since the ancient times. In this work, an extensive catalogue of flooding phenomena during the last 130 years in Greece has been compiled based on numerous sources. Based on this record the temporal and spatial distribution of flood events and victims was examined. In total, 545 events were identified, causing 686 human casualties and inflicting extensive damage across the country. Results showed seasonality patterns with more events clustering in November. They also showed that urban environments tend to present a higher flood recurrence rates than mountainous and rural areas. An increasing trend in reported flood event numbers during the last decades was discovered, even though the number of human casualties remains relatively stable during the same period. Moreover, spatial patterns were identified highlighting areas and administrational entities with higher flood recurrence rates across the country. © 2012 Springer Science+Business Media B.V

Liquefaction phenomena induced by the 26 november 2019, mw = 6.4 durrës (albania) earthquake and liquefaction susceptibility assessment in the affected area

On 26 November 2019, an Mw = 6.4 earthquake struck the central-western part of Albania. Its impact comprises secondary earthquake environmental effects (EEE) and severe building damage within the Periadriatic and the Tirana Depressions. EEE comprised mainly liquefaction phenomena in coastal, riverine, and lagoonal sites of the earthquake-affected area. From the evaluation of all available earthquake-related data, it is concluded that liquefaction sites are not randomly distributed within the affected area but are structurally and lithologically controlled. The affected areas are distributed within NW–SE striking zones formed in graben-like syncline areas with NW–SE trending fold axes. These graben-like areas are bounded by NW–SE striking marginal thrust faults and are filled with geological formations of Neogene to Quaternary age. These NW–SE striking zones and structures coincide with the NW–SE striking seismogenic thrust fault of the November 2019 earthquake as it is derived from the provided fault plane solutions. An approach for liquefaction susceptibility assessment is applied based on geological and seismological data and on liquefaction inventory. From the comparison of the compiled liquefaction inventory and the susceptibility maps, it is concluded that the majority of the observed liquefaction has been generated in very high and high susceptible areas. © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland

Evaluation of environmental seismic intensities of all known historical and recent earthquakes felt in Zakynthos Island, Greece using the Environmental Seismic Intensity (ESI 2007) scale

The complete and detailed knowledge of the historical earthquakes, the past earthquake environmental effects (EEE) and the respective seismic intensities has become significant in recent years due to the fact that among others it serves as a valuable tool for revealing and highlighting sites of significant earthquake-related hazards. Many efforts have been made to record the EEE of individual recent earthquakes and evaluate their seismic intensity based on the Environmental Seismic Intensity 2007 scale (ESI 2007) in Greece and around the world. But fewer studies have focused on the complete seismic history including historical and recent earthquakes of an area and the respective intensities based on the induced EEE. The Central Ionian Islands (Western Greece) and especially Zakynthos Island are considered appropriate for the development of this approach. The complete history of earthquakes with destructive impact on Zakynthos from 1513 to present is presented. Emphasis is given on EEE, while the respective ESI 2007 intensities are assigned. Based on the EEE's distribution on the affected fault blocks, it is concluded that eastern Zakynthos has been affected more often and severely by earthquakes. This selective distribution is attributed to the neotectonic setting of Zakynthos. The recording of the EEE over the past five centuries and the study of possible correlation with the seismotectonic structure of the affected area could be used as a basic guide for the reduction of the future seismic risk and the risk from EEE through effective land-use planning and preparedness in earthquake-prone areas. © 2019 Elsevier Ltd and INQU

The 17 November 2015 Mw 6.4 Lefkas (Ionian Sea, Western Greece) Earthquake: Impact on Environment and Buildings

On Tuesday, November 17, 2015 at 07:10:07 (UTC) a strong earthquake struck Lefkas Island (Ionian Sea, Western Greece) with magnitude Mw 6.4, depth of about 6 km and epicenter located 20 km southwest of Lefkas town. It was felt in Lefkas Island and the surrounding region and caused the death of two people, the injury of eight others, many earthquake environmental effects (EEE) and damage to buildings and infrastructures. Secondary EEE were observed in western Lefkas and classified as ground cracks, slope movements and liquefaction phenomena. Primary effects directly linked to surface expression of seismogenic source were not detected in the field. The maximum intensity VIIIESI 2007 was assigned to large-volume slope movements along western coastal Lefkas. Damage to buildings was mainly observed in villages located in Dragano-Athani graben arranged almost parallel to the northern segment of the Cephalonia Transform Fault Zone (Lefkas segment). Among structures constructed with no seismic provisions, the stone masonry buildings and monumental structures suffered most damage, while the traditional buildings of the area with dual structural system performed relatively well and suffered minor damage. Reinforced-concrete buildings were affected not so much by the earthquake itself but by the generation of secondary EEE. The maximum seismic intensities VIIIEMS-98 were assigned to villages located in Dragano-Athani graben due to very heavy structural damage observed on masonry buildings mainly attributed to the combination of the recorded high PGA values, the poor antiseismic design and construction of buildings and the geological and tectonic structure of the affected area. © 2018, Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature

Preservation of Heritage Buildings Against Natural Processes: The Case of the Saint George Church (Old Cairo, Egypt)

The Saint George church (Old Cairo, Egypt) is a unique masonry building complex comprising structures of different time periods (Pharaonic, Medieval, Roman periods, 1909 construction, 1909–1930 modifications, 1941 reconstruction). The area has been affected by floods before the construction of Aswan High Dam and high groundwater level of Nile River resulting in loading and unloading of soils and ground settlements. Moreover, the high groundwater level flooded the lower floor levels of the structure. The building complex is founded on native dense alluvial sands, silts and clayey soils, during the low water periods of river flow. Parts of the temple are founded on shallow depth, while its inner part is built on remnants of a Roman tower, which is founded on deeper soils. The church was at moderate risk to damage from extensive construction vibrations, differential settlements from groundwater lowering or earthquakes. Taking into account the aforementioned, the geological, geotechnical and hydrogeological conditions of its site were studied and church failures comprising mainly cracks were mapped and attributed to the construction complexity of the building and to differential settlements induced by groundwater level fluctuations. Based on the results of this study, lowering of the water table as part of a greater dewatering project was proposed and expected settlements were calculated. After terminating groundwater lowering, differential settlements were measured confirming the abovementioned calculations. For further protection and preservation of the monument, the maintenance of the groundwater level below the oldest foundations along with the installation of crack monitoring systems were proposed. © 2019, RILEM

Respiratory infections following earthquake-induced tsunamis: Transmission risk factors and lessons learned for disaster risk management

Earthquake-induced tsunamis have the potential to cause extensive damage to natural and built environments and are often associated with fatalities, injuries, and infectious disease out-breaks. This review aims to examine the occurrence of respiratory infections (RIs) and to elucidate the risk factors of RI transmission following tsunamis which were induced by earthquakes in the last 20 years. Forty-seven articles were included in this review and referred to the RIs emergence following the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman, the 2009 Samoa, and the 2011 Japan earthquakes. Polymi-crobial RIs were commonly detected among near-drowned tsunami survivors. Influenza outbreaks were commonly detected during the influenza transmission period. Overcrowded conditions in evacuation centers contributed to increased acute RI incidence rate, measles transmission, and tuberculosis detection. Destruction of health care infrastructures, overcrowded evacuation shelters, exposure to high pathogen densities, aggravating weather conditions, regional disease endemicity, and low vaccination coverage were the major triggering factors of RI occurrence in post-tsunami disaster settings. Knowledge of risk factors underlying RIs emergence following earthquake-in-duced tsunami can contribute to the implementation of appropriate disaster prevention and preparedness plans characterized by sufficient environmental planning, resistant infrastructures, resil-ient health care facilities, and well-established evacuation centers. Global and local disease surveil-lance is a key prerequisite for early warning and protection against RIs’ emergence and transmission in tsunami-prone areas. © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland

Synergy of tectonic geomorphology, applied geophysics and remote sensing techniques reveals new data for active extensional tectonism in NW Peloponnese (Greece)

In tectonically active areas, such as in the northwest Peloponnese of western Greece, geomorphic processes are strongly influenced by active faulting; in many cases such faults cannot be easily identified. In this paper we apply multidisciplinary analysis (morphotectonic indices, neotectonic mapping, geophysical surveys and remote sensing techniques) to map the recently-recognized east-west trending Pineios River normal fault zone with a high degree of accuracy, and to better understand its contribution to the evolution of the ancient region of Elis during Holocene time. Fault activity seems to be related to frequent changes in river flow patterns and to displacements of the nearby shoreline. We argue that fault activity is the main reason for migration of Pineios river mouth as documented for several time periods during historical time. Quantitative constraints on deformation caused by the faulting were applied through the application of the morphotectonic indices proposed in this paper, including drainage network asymmetry and sinuosity, and mountain front sinuosity, all of which indicate that this is a highly active structure. Slip rates calculated to be as high as 0.48. mm/yr for the last 209. ka (based on previously published dating) were verified by applied geophysical methods. The fault surface discontinuity was identified at depth using vertical electrical resistivity measurements and depositional layers of different resistivity were found to be clearly offset. Displacement increases toward the west, reaching an observed maximum of 110. m. The most spectacular landform alteration due to surface deformation is the north-south migration of the river estuary into completely different open sea areas during the late Quaternary, mainly during the Holocene. The sediment transport path has been altered several times due to these changes in river geometry with and the most recent seeming to have occurred almost 2000. years ago. The river estuary migrated to its contemporary position along the southern coast, settled on the hanging wall, inducing retrograding of the northern coast, and settled on the foot wall, with rates reaching the order of 0.52. m/yr, as concluded from historical and recently-acquired remote sensing data. © 2014 Elsevier B.V